Developing Reading Habits in Students

Developing Reading Habits in Students Nowadays, most students are less keen on developing their reading habits. Still, to be able to stand on the same ground as other leading countries, this habit should be instilled on the students. Many parties especially the government and teachers are concerned with the students declining reading habits. However, parents are unaware of this problem or choose to turn a blind eye towards it. Parents choose to leave this problem for teachers to handle. The government, teachers, parents and students have their own views on this matter and in this essay I will state and discuss their views so that I can decide for myself who is responsible on how Malaysia could enrich students reading habit. After approximately 11 years in formal education, majority of Malaysian students are able to read efficiently after finishing their secondary education. However, even equipped with literacy skills particularly reading skills, the reading habits of students are still at an unsatisfactory level. The Sunday Star newspaper (8th August, 1999:p2) reports that the poor reading habits among Malaysians was common knowledge but, in true Malaysian fashion, it took an official survey to jolt the education sector that something had to be done fast. There has been a debate on who is responsible for these students who are lacking in reading. Many parties are blaming parents on this matter as they lack the time to teach their children the basics of reading. They are prioritizing more on their career and making money rather than their childrens education. The government is very much concern on this matter. Based on the statistics issued by the National Statistics Department during the year 2002, Malaysian students only read two books a year. Studies in the past have shown that the exam-oriented educational system in Malaysia promotes routine learning and that there needs to be a standard shift in how we view education and about the way we teach (Chitravellu, 1997). The Education Minster, Datuk Najib Tun Razak, has frequently commented in the local media that most students read only to pass exams and do not read for pleasure. He has been instrumental in implementing many projects aimed at improving students reading ability in the country. Reading skills are important throughout our lifespan, particularly as we respond to new demands and changes in jobs and reading for pleasure or recreational has been found to improve reading comprehension, writing style, vocabulary, spelling and grammatical development (Krashen, 1993). The positive an d rewarding effects of recreational reading have been demonstrated in numerous studies (Burgess, 1994; Krashen, 1984, 1993). In other words, it is important that Malaysia must aim to re-evaluate the present education system, not to reverse it or simply oscillate forward and backward within the same unchanging parameters, without ever conducting a critical evaluation of where, how, and why things went wrong. The government must therefore set up an educational re-evaluation or reform program or a national enquiry committee to look seriously into the Malaysian education and develop a set of realistic, practical, and forward-looking ideas for improving the national education system in accordance with the requirements and ideals of Vision 2020. However, the more immediate task is to prepare the future human resource of the nation with the ability and intellectual skills to adapt to the expansion of the Malaysian economy and its globalization. Parents are the most influential people in the life of a child; students normally model the behaviours and attitudes of their parents after constantly observing them since they were in diapers. Logically, if the parents have positive attitudes the child will mimic and model after them. It goes the same if the parents have negative attitudes and behaviours. If the parents themselves do not make reading as a daily activity, they should not expect their child to cultivate reading as a daily activity. In this context, parents should be good role models to the students by including reading as one of their daily activities (Clark, 2007). Other than that, parents should allocate a small percentage of their monthly earnings to purchase books and suitable reading materials for their children. They should also designate a small section in the house specifically for reading. This allows their children to always have a place to read. If the child is still an infant or a toddler, allocate some pe rsonal time with and read a story book together. By the time child is starting his or her formal education, he or she will associate reading with not only for exams but also for pleasure. Parents also can bring their child to the local library and allow them to read books which discuss the topics of their interest. If the child is fond of cars then allow him to read a book regarding the anatomy of a car. By doing so, the child is reading for pleasure and personal interest. This can translate into good academic performance and personal development in the future. Other than parents, the school which is the primary educational institution of the society also has a crucial role to play in improving students reading habits. The school library is one of the usual facilities found in a public school. However, it is not fully utilised by the students. Students will seldom go and read at the school library unless it is for some special reading programme which is conducted once or twice a week by the school. This may be due to the schools library lacking certain attractive factors. The school should allocate some money to ameliorate the facilities of the schools library. Computers should be provided to enable the students to utilise the internet for research and also to locate online reading materials. Air-conditioners should be installed and quality chairs as well as tables should be provided in order to create a conducive reading ambience. The books available should be of variety of genre and topics to capture the many interests of the students. Th e school engender book publishing companies such as McGraw-Hill and Dawama in order to purchase suitable reading materials for the library. The elected student librarians and the teacher-in-charge should make an effort to promote the books available in the library to the student body. Most of the time students have no interest to go to the school library due to the absence of awareness regarding the books available there which may attract their interest (Clark, 2010). Lastly, the only people that can improve the students reading habit are the students themselves. It is futile to assist the students in improving their reading habits if they themselves have no intention of doing so. The student should be aware that reading is one of the primary key to success in the modern world. In our information-saturated globe, knowledge is constantly being updated and upgraded wherein previous information would deem obsolete or impractical. Moreover, with the advent and evolution of the internet, information can be transmitted throughout the whole world in the blink of an eye. Therefore, it is imperative for students to make reading as a pleasurable and continuing habit if he or she wants to stay abreast with the world and have the competitive edge. Students should realise that they will have to read continuously even after finishing their formal education. The knowledge that the students studied when they were sitting for their exams may have undergone signifi cant changes in the next five or ten years. In order to keep abreast with current development, students must read relevant publications. If the students do not hone this habit, they will not have the initiative to constantly read not only to improve their career standing but also for personal development in order to become a better and useful citizen. There are many reasons for the deplorable reading habits of Malaysian students either due to parental, school-related or personal habits. Even so, they are innumerable numbers of ways to improve the current reading habits of students. This requires the amalgamation of the efforts of many authoritative bodies such as the school and the government. Readings is one of the most essential language abilities. I am not implying that the other language skills are of lower standard but much of the knowledge within the society is disseminated through writing. For me, personally, even after just finishing school I still allocate some time to read books concerning my area of interest such as linguistics and novels. I read such books not for passing an exam later on but for reading itself. In conclusion, even though students are still passing exams, their reading habit is not continuous. Reading for pleasure is a far cry for Malaysian students as they are more exams oriented. Both the government and teachers have valid arguments to argue. Parents are the first teachers to children. However, parents fail to nurture their children in this habit while they are young. Thus, resulting in the situation we are nowadays. In my opinion, based on the current reading habit of the Malaysian students, Malaysia has a long way to go before it can compete with a reading and successful society such as Japan.

Abraham Van Helsing Essay

Innocence, chastity, purity, and married life are just a few things that made up the ‘image’ of the nineteenth century Victorian woman. During this time, it was greatly looked down upon if a woman chose to stay single, as she would be pitied and dubbed a â€Å"whore†. Lucy Westenra is one of the main characters in the novel, Dracula by Bram Stoker. Lucy is a beautiful young lady whose innocence and virtuous being draws three suitors to her. Although, this portrayed innocence is not the only thing that is drawing these men towards her. Lucy has a sexual appeal to her personality, much different than her best friend Mina Murray and the typical Victorian woman. This sense of sexual desire will eventually lead her right into the dangerous and evil arms of Count Dracula. The Count only has the ability to attack willing victims, which is why the sexually driven Victorian woman, Lucy Westenra is the first character to become victimized by Dracula’s deadly spell. Count Dracula was an evil, lustful vampire who wanted nothing but power and control. He lived in an Eastern European country called, Transylvania. The Count preyed on any individual who would make him feel in control and powerful of the situation. This is why Lucy Westenra was targeted and made Dracula’s first victim. The first peculiar account Lucy and Mina experience was when they see a Russian ship wrecked near the shore and hear that the there was no life aboard and the captain had died holding a crucifix in his hands. Soon after the account, Lucy started mysteriously sleep walking many night in a row into the grave yard near her home. One night, Mina had awoken the Rowatt 3 find Lucy missing and not in her bed, she then found her outside with a creature with beaming red eyes hunched over her. Mina tried to save her friend but by the time she got over there, the creature was gone. In the morning Mina had found strange dots on Lucy’s neck and after struggling for weeks Lucy became deathly sick and started to change before everyone’s eyes. Unknowingly, she was transforming into a super natural and dangerous form of herself while dead and lying in a cold grave. â€Å"Indeed, it is not only Lucy and Mina who are dramatically transformed in the draining, but Dracula himself, whose transformations are much more varied and complex than those of his victims.† (Pg. 238, Viragh) Count Dracula had stripped this woman of her innocence and virtue by changing her to an evil vampire just like him. Dracula now had control over Lucy but only because she was willing to let him control her. In the nineteenth century, straying away from who a woman is supposed to be according to the Roman Catholic Church is heresy. A woman was never to be with more than one man, but was to be married and completely faithful to her partner. This century was ruled by â€Å"the belief that an individual’s sex and sexuality form the most basic core of their identity, potentiality, social/political standing, and freedom† (Pg. 1, Ridgway) Lucy Westenra had a completely different mindset as she expressed in a letter to her dear friend Mina. â€Å"Why can’t they let a girl marry three men, or as many as want her, and save all this trouble?† (Pg. 66, Stoker) After Lucy states these words in her letter, she immediately admits to her thoughts and actions being heresy. Just because she confessed Rowatt 4 to this sin against the church and her beliefs does not simply alleviate Lucy’s sexual desire. This difference between Lucy and other nineteenth century virtuous women was not just a phase of rebellion, it was psychological. Lucy is fully aware that she is desired by many men and she lets that get into her head, essentially she is feeding off the attention. This vulnerability and openness is why Lucy Westenra is Count Dracula’s first and easiest target. The first time the Count starts to get into Lucy’s head is after her and Mina see the wrecked boat upon shore, containing the containers of dirt. These were Dracula’s sleeping quarters. This fact was not known by the women at the time, but soon after this event is when Lucy starts to sleep walk. This sleep walking is not a coincidence but is psychologically connected to her sinful desires of lustfulness. Count Dracula only has the power the attack willing victims, which could only mean Lucy knew in her subconscious what she was doing by going out to the cemetery at nights. This spell Dracula puts on Lucy is the same spell he put on the three women who now life in Dracula Castle with him. These women were just as innocent and virtuous as Lucy was and are now sex crazed and evil just as the Count is. This â€Å"spell† was a way to undermine women so that Dracula would feel powerful and controlling over them. In essence, Lucy Westenra was a seemingly virtuous nineteenth century Victorian woman who actually had underlying sexual desires. These desires made Lucy vulnerable to Count Dracula, who was consumed with gaining control over his victims. Because of her lustful manor, Lucy was drawn to the attack of Dracula and fell under his deep spell. From then on there was no turning back. Works Cited Stoker, Bram. Dracula. 1897. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990. Viragh, Attila. â€Å"Can The Vampire Speak? Dracula As Discourse On Cultural Extinction.† English Literature In Transition, 1880-1920 56.2 (2013): 231-245. MLA International Bibliography. Web. 25 Sept. 2013. Ridgway, Stephan. â€Å"Victorian Sexuality† in â€Å"Sexuality and Modernity† originally written as a lecture for Sociology at Sydney University, 1996. Isis Creations. Web. 12 Nov. 2010.

Nursing questions Essay

The nurse is performing her admission assessment of a patient. When grading arterial pulses, a 1+ pulse indicates: Above normal perfusion. Absent perfusion. Normal perfusion. Diminished perfusion. Murmurs that indicate heart disease are often accompanied by other symptoms such as: Dyspnea on exertion. Subcutaneous emphysema. Thoracic petechiae. Periorbital edema. Which pregnancy-related physiologic change would place the patient with a history of cardiac disease at the greatest risk of developing severe cardiac problems? Decrease heart rate Decreased cardiac output Increased plasma volume Increased blood pressure The priority nursing diagnosis for the patient with cardiomyopathy is: Anxiety related to risk of declining health status. Ineffective individual coping related to fear of debilitating illness Fluid volume excess related to altered compensatory mechanisms. Decreased cardiac output related to reduced myocardial contractility. A patient with thrombophlebitis reached her expected outcomes of care. Her affected leg appears pink and warm. Her pedal pulse is palpable and there is no edema present. Which step in the nursing process is described above? Planning Implementation Analysis Evaluation An elderly patient may have sustained a basilar skull fracture after slipping and falling on an icy sidewalk. The nurse knows that basilar skull factures: Are the least significant type of skull fracture. May have cause cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leaks from the nose or ears. Have no characteristic findings. Are always surgically repaired. Which of the following types of drugs might be given to control increased intracranial pressure (ICP)? Barbiturates Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors Anticholinergics Histamine receptor blockers The nurse is teaching family members of a patient with a concussion about the early signs of increased intracranial pressure (ICP). Which of the following would she cite as an early sign of increased ICP? Decreased systolic blood pressure Headache and vomiting Inability to wake the patient with noxious stimuli Dilated pupils that don’t react to light Jessie James is diagnosed with retinal detachment. Which intervention is the most important for this patient? Admitting him to the hospital on strict bed rest Patching both of his eyes Referring him to an ophthalmologist Preparing him for surgery  Dr. Bruce Owen, a chemist, sustained a chemical burn to one eye. Which intervention takes priority for a patient with a chemical burn of the eye? Patch the affected eye and call the ophthalmologist. Administer a cycloplegic agent to reduce ciliary spasm. Immediately instill a tropical anesthetic, then irrigate the eye with saline solution. Administer antibiotics to reduce the risk of infection The nurse is assessing a patient and notes a Brudzinski’s sign and Kernig’s sign. These are two classic signs of which of the following disorders? Cerebrovascular accident (CVA) Meningitis Seizure disorder Parkinson’s disease A patient is admitted to the hospital for a brain biopsy. The nurse knows that the most common type of primary brain tumor is: Meningioma. Angioma. Hemangioblastoma. Glioma. The nurse should instruct the patient with Parkinson’s disease to avoid which of the following? Walking in an indoor shopping mall Sitting on the deck on a cool summer evening Walking to the car on a cold winter day Sitting on the beach in the sun on a summer day Gary Jordan suffered a cerebrovascular accident that left her unable to comprehend speech and unable to speak. This type of aphasia is known as: Receptive aphasia Expressive aphasia Global aphasia Conduction aphasia Kelly Smith complains that her headaches are occurring more frequently despite medications. Patients with a history of headaches should be taught to avoid: Freshly prepared meats. Citrus fruits. Skim milk Chocolate Immediately following cerebral aneurysm rupture, the patient usually complains of: Photophobia Explosive headache Seizures Hemiparesis Which of the following is a cause of embolic brain injury? Persistent hypertension Subarachnoid hemorrhage Atrial fibrillation Skull fracture Although Ms. Priestly has a spinal cord injury, she can still have sexual intercourse. Discharge teaching should make her aware that: She must remove indwelling urinary catheter prior to intercourse. She can no longer achieve orgasm. Positioning may be awkward. She can still get pregnant. Ivy Hopkins, age 25, suffered a cervical fracture requiring immobilization with halo traction. When caring for the patient in halo traction, the nurse must: Keep a wrench taped to the halo vest for quick removal if cardiopulmonary resuscitation is necessary. Remove the brace once a day to allow the patient to rest. Encourage the patient to use a pillow under the ring. Remove the brace so that the patient can shower. The nurse asks a patient’s husband if he understands why his wife is receiving nimodipine (Nimotop), since she suffered a cerebral aneurysm rupture. Which response by the husband indicates that he understands the drug’s use? â€Å"Nimodipine replaces calcium. † â€Å"Nimodipine promotes growth of blood vessels in the brain. † â€Å"Nimodipine reduces the brain’s demand for oxygen. † â€Å"Nimodipine reduces vasospasm in the brain. † Many men who suffer spinal injuries continue to be sexually active. The teaching plan for a man with a spinal cord injury should include sexually concerns. Which of the following injuries would most likely prevent erection and ejaculation? C5 C7 T4 S4 Cathy Bates, age 36, is a homemaker who frequently forgets to take her carbamazepine (Tegretol). As a result, she has been experiencing seizures. How can the nurse best help the patient remember to take her medication? Tell her take her medication at bedtime. Instruct her to take her medication after one of her favorite television shows. Explain that she should take her medication with breakfast. Tell her to buy an alarm watch to remind her. Richard Barnes was diagnosed with pneumococcal meningitis. What response by the patient indicates that he understands the precautions necessary with this diagnosis? â€Å"I’m so depressed because I can’t have any visitors for a week. † â€Å"Thank goodness, I’ll only be in isolation for 24 hours. † â€Å"The nurse told me that my urine and stool are also sources of meningitis bacteria. † â€Å"The doctor is a good friend of mine and won’t keep me in isolation. An early symptom associated with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) includes: Fatigue while talking Change in mental status Numbness of the hands and feet Spontaneous fractures When caring for a patient with esophageal varices, the nurse knows that bleeding in this disorder usually stems from: Esophageal perforation Pulmonary hypertension Portal hypertension Peptic ulcers Tiffany Black is diagnosed with type A hepatitis. What special precautions should the nurse take when caring for this patient? Put on a mask and gown before entering the patient’s room. Wear gloves and a gown when removing the patient’s bedpan. Prevent the droplet spread of the organism. Use caution when bringing food to the patient. Discharge instructions for a patient who has been operated on for colorectal cancer include irrigating the colostomy. The nurse knows her teaching is effective when the patient states he’ll contact the doctor if: He experiences abdominal cramping while the irrigant is infusing He has difficulty inserting the irrigation tube into the stoma He expels flatus while the return is running out He’s unable to complete the procedure in 1 hour The nurse explains to the patient who has an abdominal perineal resection that an indwelling urinary catheter must be kept in place for several days afterward because: It prevents urinary tract infection following surgery It prevents urine retention and resulting pressure on the perineal wound It minimizes the risk of wound contamination by the urine It determines whether the surgery caused bladder trauma The first day after, surgery the nurse finds no measurable fecal drainage from a patient’s colostomy stoma. What is the most appropriate nursing intervention? Call the doctor immediately. Obtain an order to irrigate the stoma. Place the patient on bed rest and call the doctor. Continue the current plan of care. If a patient’s GI tract is functioning but he’s unable to take foods by mouth, the preferred method of feeding is: Total parenteral nutrition Peripheral parenteral nutrition Enteral nutrition Oral liquid supplements Which type of solution causes water to shift from the cells into the plasma? Hypertonic Hypotonic Isotonic Alkaline Particles move from an area of greater osmelarity to one of lesser osmolarity through: Active transport Osmosis Diffusion Filtration Which assessment finding indicates dehydration? Tenting of chest skin when pinched Rapid filling of hand veins A pulse that isn’t easily obliterated Neck vein distention Which nursing intervention would most likely lead to a hypo-osmolar state? Performing nasogastric tube irrigation with normal saline solution Weighing the patient daily Administering tap water enema until the return is clear Encouraging the patient with excessive perspiration to dink broth Which assessment finding would indicate an extracellular fluid volume deficit? Bradycardia A central venous pressure of 6 mm Hg Pitting edema An orthostatic blood pressure change A patient with metabolic acidosis has a preexisting problem with the kidneys. Which other organ helps regulate blood pH? Liver Pancreas Lungs heart The nurse considers the patient anuric if the patient; Voids during the nighttime hours Has a urine output of less than 100 ml in 24 hours Has a urine output of at least 100 ml in 2 hours Has pain and burning on urination Which nursing action is appropriate to prevent infection when obtaining a sterile urine specimen from an indwelling urinary catheter? Aspirate urine from the tubing port using a sterile syringe and needle Disconnect the catheter from the tubing and obtain urine Open the drainage bag and pour out some urine Wear sterile gloves when obtaining urine After undergoing a transurethral resection of the prostate to treat benign prostatic hypertrophy, a patient is retuned to the room with continuous bladder irrigation in place. One day later, the patient reports bladder pain. What should the nurse do first? Increase the I. V. flow rate Notify the doctor immediately Assess the irrigation catheter for patency and drainage Administer meperidine (Demerol) as prescribed A patient comes to the hospital complaining of sudden onset of sharp, severe pain originating in the lumbar region and radiating around the side and toward the bladder. The patient also reports nausea and vomiting and appears pale, diaphoretic, and anxious. The doctor tentatively diagnoses renal calculi and orders flat-plate abdominal X-rays. Renal calculi can form anywhere in the urinary tract. What is their most common formation site? Kidney Ureter Bladder Urethra A patient comes to the hospital complaining of severe pain in the right flank, nausea, and vomiting. The doctor tentatively diagnoses right ureter-olithiasis (renal calculi). When planning this patient’s care, the nurse should assign highest priority to which nursing diagnosis? Pain Risk of infection Altered urinary elimination Altered nutrition: less than body requirements The nurse is reviewing the report of a patient’s routine urinalysis. Which of the following values should the nurse consider abnormal? Specific gravity of 1. 002 Urine pH of 3 Absence of protein Absence of glucose A patient with suspected renal insufficiency is scheduled for a comprehensive diagnostic work-up. After the nurse explains the diagnostic tests, the patient asks which part of the kidney â€Å"does the work. Which answer is correct? The glomerulus Bowman’s capsule The nephron The tubular system During a shock state, the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system exerts which of the following effects on renal function? Decreased urine output, increased reabsorption of sodium and water Decreased urine output, decreased reabsorption of sodium and water Increased urine output, increased reabsorption of sodium and water Increased urine output, decreased reabsorption of sodium and water While assessing a patient who complained of lower abdominal pressure, the nurse notes a firm mass extending above the symphysis pubis. The nurse suspects: A urinary tract infection Renal calculi An enlarged kidney A distended bladder Gregg Lohan, age 75, is admitted to the medical-surgical floor with weakness and left-sided chest pain. The symptoms have been present for several weeks after a viral illness. Which assessment finding is most symptomatic of pericarditis? Pericardial friction rub Bilateral crackles auscultated at the lung bases Pain unrelieved by a change in position Third heart sound (S3) James King is admitted to the hospital with right-side-heart failure. When assessing him for jugular vein distention, the nurse should position him: Lying on his side with the head of the bed flat. Sitting upright. Flat on his back. Lying on his back with the head of the bed elevated 30 to 45 degrees. The nurse is interviewing a slightly overweight 43-year-old man with mild emphysema and borderline hypertension. He admits to smoking a pack of cigarettes per day. When developing a teaching plan, which of the following should receive highest priority to help decrease respiratory complications?

Payment Systems of Tnb - 723 Words

PAYMENT SYSTEMS AND WORKING HOURS In order to attract workers and to retain the best performers, employers need to have a compensation system that will achieve these objectives. Furthermore, employers need to comply, with the relevant law which relate to payment systems and hours of work. Payment systems and quantum of payment play a significant role not only for individual employers, but also at the level of society. WAGE AND PAYMENT SYSTEMS In return of their work, the employees of TNB are paid agreed amounts of remuneration. Typically, employers also provide some payments to motivate workers to maximize their output. Thus, a remuneration or compensation package consists of several elements, usually a combination of basic pay,†¦show more content†¦WORKING HOURS Restrictions on working hours established by the Employment Act and SLOs NORMAL OFFICE HOURS Sunday to Thursday | 8.00 am – 5.00 pm | Friday and Saturday | Off day | SHIFT HOURS- three shift system Shift / Day | | Shift I | 8.00 a.m. – 4.00 p.m. | Shift II | 4.00 p.m. – 12 a.m. | Shift III | 12 a.m. – 8 a.m. | OVERTIME Overtime hours are restricted by law to protect the health of the worker. The normal hours of work is permitted up to a maximum of 104 hours per month. Overtime work cannot be made compulsory except in certain circumstance and in certain industries (the essential services) such as TNB. An employee who works overtime hours are rewarded at maximum rate of RM 9 per hours. BENEFITS AND REWARDS We understand the importance of attracting and retaining the best people. In addition to competitive salaries, we offer a number of benefits as well as incentives aimed at recognising and rewarding high performance. We support aspiring employees through development programs and opportunities - whether by moving up through the company, or by expanding their skills and experience. 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Relief Efforts And Policing Of New Orleans After Hurricane...

There is no question that relief efforts and policing of New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina should have been handled much differently and that most of the problems that occurred after the storm were man made. Though the political realm of the aftermath created more problems for those truly in need than it helped, Abdulrahman Zeitoun managed to become a hero in a time of desperation. He was able to not only save himself, but helped in keeping those around him alive too. In the face of sheer tragedy and political corruption, Zeitoun became a hero through various individual feats. With his relentless need to help others and intense desire to stay in New Orleans knowing that the storm was coming, Zeitoun managed to have a profound impact on the lives of many. Zeitoun, the hardworking family man from Syria, has an unbelievably altruistic personality, which is one of the reasons that he found himself in such a dire situation later in the book. When news of the storms growth reaches him, Z eitoun is faced with a decision to either stay in New Orleans or go with his family to Baton Rouge in hopes of finding safety. With very little doubt, he decides to stay to make sure that his home as well as the various worksites throughout the city are safe and ready for Katrina. Knowing the magnitude of the storm, Zeitoun decides to attempt to preserve it as best as he can, but ultimately it would not matter. On Monday, August 29th, just after the initial landfall of the storm, Zeitoun putShow MoreRelatedAnalysis of Naomi Klein’s book, The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism1683 Words   |  7 Pagesthat a person was, take their mind back to infancy, and rebuild it as the doctor wished. There were many uses for this technique, if it was proven possible, such as getting information from a suspect or curing psychological disorders like depression. After many trials it was proven that it is possible to erode a person, but none of the subjects had their minds succe ssfully reconstructed again. Test subjects had terrible debilitations for the rest of their lives, ranging from memory loss to full psychologicalRead MoreExploring Corporate Strategy - Case164366 Words   |  658 Pagesfurniture giant News Corporation – corporate logic and corporate management in a worldwide media business. CRH – impressive international growth of an Irish company driven from a ‘lean’ corporate centre. Numico – difficulties with diversification for a Dutch nutritional products company. AIB – competing in the global banking industry: the challenges for a mid-size bank. SABMiller – an African brewer takes on the world: learning to thrive in difficult circumstances. MacPac – from a New Zealand start-up

In Our Society, There Has Been Several Issues But One Of

In our society, there has been several issues but one of the main concerns is what has been going on in the African American community. Police Brutality is a major problem that many African Americans fear dealing with racial divides but some believe minorities cause higher crime rates. In the dictionary of law, Police brutality, is the use of excessive and/or unnecessary force by police when dealing with civilians. Many Americans have gone through many situations where they were excessively force by the police. But few American’s were racial profiled, discriminated, or beat brutality for no appointed reason. In the world, we used music as a way of connecting to our daily lives but over the years we have had music shown express violence†¦show more content†¦After, police brutality incidents it was shown that most of these cases were due to racism. Black Americans, have an image that is been depicted as thugs, hoodlums, and violent. However, there have been more than j ust the Black race causing violence and causing crime. One of the biggest problems is Blacks being pulled over and being antagonized by police officers. African Americans are above the average rate of deaths due to police brutality which supports racism in America. In this past year, there has been shootings that occurred in Dallas and Baton Rouge that were incidents of police brutality. These types of racial deaths were probably higher researchers say but we many never know because now the technological world has brought better advancements in the world of crime. As researches have said that crime or violence in the black community is higher it is shown that it is due to social class insights. The word â€Å"sociology† stands as a disciplinary insight in which the society in which we live in contain numerous class levels that separate people by social class. The types of classes start at high class to lower class. 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Waste Manageemnt in Namibia free essay sample

I am further extending my appreciation to my siblings for their support and encouragement. I would also like to give thanks to my friends for support and encouragement, and to give special thanks to Mr Leonard Haindongo for his assistance with data collection. Many thanks to my respondents from the following town municipalities and councils for their valuable contributions to my research: Luderitz Town Council, Mariental Town Municipality, Ongwediva Town Council, Ondangwa Town Council, Oshakati Town Council, Otjiwarongo Municipality, Swakopmund Municipality, Windhoek Municipality, as well as the Oranjemund Town Management Company. At the national level, the environment is threatened by unsafe waste disposal, which is detrimental to the environmental integrity and posing health hazards. Waste management is important aspect of environmental management in Namibia, due to the fact that waste is a threat to the integrity of the environment. Waste is among the so called ‘brown problems’, which strongly affects poor people in urban areas. Challenges for managing waste in Namibia are: lack of institutional capacities in some towns to deal with some of the serious waste problems, limited capacity to manage waste and to control pollution, and financial constraints. The disposal of solid and liquid wastes is a concern in Namibia, especially that waste has some implications in sustainable development. Therefore waste management has become a concern for the Namibian government. The study presented herein has investigated the current status of municipal waste management in Namibia, using Windhoek as a case study. Namibian towns, especially Windhoek are challenged by the increasing population, the link between waste and socio-economic development, as well as increasing amounts of waste generated which puts pressure on disposal facilities. At the moment, some town management systems seem to be ineffective in addressing waste management for the purpose of preventing and minimizing waste in order to reduce environmental impacts that may result due to increasing waste volumes. It was deemed necessary to develop a waste management system that could be implemented by 10 all towns. Moreover, sound waste management needs to be encouraged in Namibia. The overall aim of this research was to investigate how waste is being managed at the municipal level in Namibia, in order to recommend a possible system for handling waste across urban Namibia in future. The methodology employed for this research comprised of: literature survey, use of questionnaire, personal interviews, on-site data gathering and data analysis. The researcher worked closely with various town municipalities in Namibia in order to get an idea of how waste is being managed at the municipal level. The towns where the surveys were conducted Oranjemund, are: Luderitz, Mariental, Oshakati, and Ongwediva, The Ondangwa, researcher Otjiwarongo, Swakopmund Windhoek. conducted an empirical research that is both qualitative and quantitative, presenting original research findings. As part of the design, a case study research was used as an approach to establish an understanding of the concerned situation (waste management at the municipal level) by being focused on Windhoek instead of generalizing. Primary data were collected for this research; however, secondary data from past studies were also used for the purpose of quantification. For the purpose of selecting the study population, the stratified purposive sampling method was used. Out of 31 towns of Namibia, 11 (35. 5%) were selected, of which only 9 (29. 03%) actively participated in the research. Such a proportion was deemed valid because it gave an idea of how waste is managed in Namibia in general, particularly because a case study research design was also involved, which presented a broader view on waste management systems. This helped the researcher to achieve the research aim. To analyze the data, the researcher summarized the qualitative data collected from various towns, which helped to understand them better and interpret them. In terms of quantitative data, the researcher gathered numerical data, particularly with respect to waste generation, from which waste indicators were calculated. This information helped the researcher to propose a waste management system for Namibia and to answer the research question. 11 However, the researcher could not obtain data on industrial and commercial waste, since they are handled by private companies. Such information is not publicly shared. Overall, waste is handled by a wide range of stakeholders i. e. those individuals, authorities, institutions and organizations that have a stake in waste production and management. It is also important to realize that handling of waste is a legal issue as far as waste management is concerned. Therefore policies, laws are regulations are developed to regulate waste management at the national, regional and international levels The definitions of waste as a single term vary from country to country. In the Namibian context, waste is referred to as any matter whether gaseous, solid or liquid or any combination thereof, which is from time to time listed by the Minister by notice in the Gazette or by regulation as an undesirable or superfluous byproduct, emission, residue or a remainder of any process or activity (EMA, 2007). The following waste management strategies are implemented in efforts to manage waste and for the purpose of reducing the environmental impacts of waste: 1) prevention of waste generation, 2) waste recovery (recycling, re-use and waste treatment) and 3) disposal of waste in an environmentally safe manner. This is referred to as the waste management hierarchy, and it emphasizes that waste prevention should be an ultimate goal for any approach to waste management; after which the other options (recycling, re-use and treatment) can follow. Waste management being one of the approaches to environmental management should be aiming towards sustainable development, the development that aims to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs through sustainable use of natural resources. The management of waste is now moving towards a more holistic and sustainable approach, with much emphasis being placed on the environmental impacts of waste materials and products throughout their lifetimes. Sustainable use of 12 resources as an approach to waste management is promoted by the Namibian Environmental Management Act No. 7 of 2007. As a result of this approach, volumes of waste generated are reduced through improved waste prevention measures, improved resource efficiency and a shift to more sustainable consumption patterns. With responsible waste management stakeholders and legal frameworks in place, implementation of waste management strategies can be a success story. Municipal waste is the waste collected by municipalities independently of the source of waste. It includes waste originated from households, small businesses, institutions and communities. Knowing the statistics on municipal waste being produced and managed from various sources of origin is therefore essential for the purpose of monitoring, decision-making as well as for the development of waste policies. In terms of recycling, at least 88. 9% of the towns that were surveyed practice recycling of waste materials. Those are mainly the towns that have recycling companies or projects. The towns that do not have recycling companies do a local collection of waste materials that are sent to other towns or abroad for recycling. Although re-use is one of the waste recovery strategies, not all towns use it. Treatment of waste as a waste management principle is practiced in all the towns that were contacted for this study. The common type of waste being treated is wastewater/sewage. Apart from wastewater treatment, medical waste is also treated in Oranjemund and Windhoek through incineration. In Windhoek, incineration of medical waste is done by the Ministry of Health and Social Services, after which the Windhoek Municipality takes care of the residue. In all the towns that were contacted, there are organized methods of collecting waste from households, which are transported to landfill sites for disposal. Noteworthy, the landfills differ in types, sizes and in potentials to threaten the 13 environment. Waste materials being disposed of at the disposal sites in various towns include: household waste, building rubbles, garden refuse, industrial waste, hospital waste and general waste. Hazardous waste is disposed of at specially engineered landfill sites. Given the fact that handling of waste is a legal issue, the Environmental Management Act of Namibia has set a law that no waste should be discarded at any waste disposal site that has not been declared or approved by the Minister of Environment and Tourism. Namibia? s economy depends largely on the wealth and exploitation of natural resources. Thus it is important to promote sound environmental management, which is essential for the protection of resources. South environmental management is also necessary for reducing negative environmental impacts and in fact for economic growth. In terms of the socio-economy, high unemployment, poverty, income inequality, pandemic HIV and AIDS, and lack of skills are the major challenges in Namibia. In essence, waste should be managed in Namibia in order to reduce waste generation and to avoid negative environmental impacts. This is mainly due to the increasing population and economic activities, which play a role in waste generation. Waste management in Namibia is a responsibility of all residents, local authorities, government ministries, private sector and businesses. This study has identified a number of waste management stakeholders identified in different towns of Namibia. Nevertheless, waste management remains a priority for the government, with different government ministries being involved in formulating policies and strategies for dealing with waste and its management. The municipal waste is handled by town municipalities and councils, with support from private contractors. The Division of Solid Waste Management within the City of Windhoek is acknowledged for keeping Windhoek the cleanest town in Africa. It ensures that 14 all waste generated is collected, transported and disposed of. Waste generated from households is collected by this division. Business waste is collected by both the Solid Waste Management Division and private companies, while the waste generated from industrial areas and from open spaces is specifically collected by individual contractors and private companies. In terms of waste disposal in Windhoek, there are six general landfill sites that are referred to as ‘satellite sites’. Garden refuse and building rubbles are disposed of at those sites. The satellite sites located in various locations within the Windhoek municipal area, namely: Havana, Khomasdal, Pioneerspark, Eros, Olympia and Ludwigsdorf. Approximately 169,915. 4 tons (84,957. 2 m3) of building rubbles and 26,442. 23 tons (88,170. 75 m3) of garden refuse were disposed of at the satellite sites in 2008. On average approximately 14,159. 54 tons (7079. 7 m3) of building rubbles and 2,204. 27 tons (7347. 56 m3) of garden refuse were disposed of per month. In addition, approximately 119,916 tons (59,958 m3) of sand and fill were disposed there in 2008, with an average of 10,970 tons (5,485 m3) disposed per month. Apart from the disposal of garden waste and building rubbles, general and hazardous wastes are disposed of at a specially engineered landfill site known as Kupfer berg that is located about 11 km from the city centre. At this site, two separate cells are used for the purpose of waste disposal. The general wastes generated from households, commercial and industrial activities are disposed of in the general cell; while the hazardous wastes are disposed of in the hazardous cell. In order to prevent any leakage of leachate from contaminating the soil and ground water, the site is lined with some layers. This study has found that roughly an amount of 229. 48 kg of the general waste was disposed per capita per year in 2008, while the amount of hazardous waste disposed per capita per year was 16. 8 kg. 15 Recycling as a waste management strategy is practiced in Windhoek. Various recyclable materials are collected from the landfill sites, including: papers, cartons, plastics, glasses and cans. These are compacted and weighed, then transported to the recycling companies. The recycling companies have to ensure that all recyclable materials are semi-processed, after which they are packaged and send to South Africa for recycling, since there is currently no recycling plant in Namibia. The recyclable materials collected at the Kupferberg landfill site have been divided into fractions as shown in the diagram below. Approximately 55% of the general waste is made up of non-recyclable materials, however, there is a potential for recycling other types of waste, for example, garden refuse that is accidentally disposed there. The diagram below presents the fractions of the recyclable materials being disposed of at Kupferberg, compared with the amount of nonrecyclable materials. 9% 14% Paper 4% 55% 6% 4% 7% 1% Glass Metal Carton Plastics (hard) Plastics (soft) Wood Non-recyclables Recently a recycling initiative has been started in Windhoek, that is being managed by the private sector. Such an initiative could potentially be replicated in other towns, however challenges associated with costs and transport have been experienced. Wastewater treatment in Windhoek is essential, particularly because water is a scarce commodity. For this reason, the City of Windhoek has adopted a policy of treating wastewater in order to meet the water demand needs. Currently there are 16 three water treatment plants in Windhoek, which are used to treat wastewater for consumption. At least 35% of drinking water in Windhoek is reclaimed. Waste auditing is one of the important practical aspects of waste management. The City of Windhoek conducts waste audits a bi-annual basis. Based on the household waste audits performed in 2004 and 2008, the average amount of waste generated per person per day was 0. 37 kg and 0. 49 kg respectively. However, according to the waste data collected from Windhoek households between July 2006 and March 2007, the amount of waste generated per person per day ranges between 0. 604 – 0. 813 kg, which is quite high and is expected to increase. Such an amount needs to be reduced. The audits conducted in 2004 and 2008 were compared, after which not so much difference was found. This led to a recommendation that waste audits should be performed every 5 years. This study identified some weaknesses concerning waste management in the towns of Namibia. Such weaknesses can be used as opportunities for improvement. In addition, reliable waste data need to be provided, as they play a significant role in waste management. Availability of such data contributes to decision-making processes, as well as to the implementation of waste management strategies. Waste indicators such as waste generated per capita need to be determined, as they are necessary to point out the problematic areas and possibilities of improvement. This study has come up with a waste indicator model, based on different waste streams in Windhoek in 2008 (see Table below). Based on this model, the amount of waste that was disposed per capita per year in Windhoek was 1,315. 51kg. This indicator was used to extrapolate the amounts disposed in other towns, as well as the total amount of waste disposed in overall urban Namibia. Given the high estimates of waste disposed per year, recycling was recommended as the best strategy for reducing such amounts. 17 Waste indicator General waste per year General waste per month General waste per capita Hazardous waste per year Hazardous waste per month Hazardous waste per capita Construction waste per year Construction waste per month Construction waste per capita Garden refuse per year Garden refuse per month Garden refuse per capita Sand fill per year Sand fill per month Sand fill per capita Estimates 67,925. 52 5,660. 46 Estimated indicators Units tonnes 230 4,970. 58 414. 22 17 169,914 14,160. 0 574. 03 26,451. 30 2204. 4 89. 36 119,916 10,970 405. 12 kg/capita/year tonnes kg/capita/year tones tones kg/capita/year tones tones kg/capita/year tones Kg/capita/year Capita Total waste per capita and year 296000 1315. 51 kg/capita/year The findings of this study suggest that the waste management system currently being used in Windhoek can be used as a model for the e ntire Namibia, as it has made it the cleanest city in Africa. Such system still have a potential to be further improved, however, it can still be considered the best-practice waste management system in Namibia. 18 ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS AIDS BAT BATNEEC CBD CBO COBA COD DEA EEuP EIA ELVs EU GDP GWTP HIV ISWM ICT MAWF MDG MET MFMR MME MOHSS MRLGH MTI MWTC NBL NDP NEWS NGO NGRP Acquired Immuno deficiency Syndrome Best Available Techniques Best Available Technology Not Entailing Excessive Costs Central Business District Community Based Organisation Cost-Benefit-Analysis Chemical Oxygen Demand Directorate of Environmental Affairs Eco-design of Energy-using Products Environmental Impact Assessment End-of-Life Vehicles European Union Gross Domestic Product Gammams Wastewater Treatment Plant Human Immuno deficiency Virus Integrated Sustainable Waste Management Information Communication Technology Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry Millenium Development Goal Ministry of Environment and Tourism Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources Ministry of Mines and Energy Ministry of Health and Social Services Ministry of Regional, Local Government and Housing Ministry of Trade and Industry Ministry of Works, Transport and Communication Namibia Breweries Limited National Development Plan Namibia Environment and Wildlife Society Non-Governmental Organisation New Goreangab Reclamation Plant 19 NMA NPC OECD OGRP OWTP REB RoHS UWTP WEEE Namibia Manufacturing Association National Planning Commission Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development Old Goreangab Reclamation Plant Otjomuise Wastewater Treatment Plant Responsible Environmental Behaviour Restriction of the Use of certain Hazardous Substances in electrical and electronic equipment Ujams Water Treatment Plant Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment 20 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1. . 1. 1. Background Waste management is one of the important aspects of environmental management in Namibia (EMA, 2007). Waste on its own is a threat to the integrity of the environment, as it can have negative environmental impacts which result from environmental threats such as air pollution, illegal dumping of waste, littering, poor sanitation, emission of green house gases, urbanization and poverty (Moningka, 2000; Henry et al. , 2006; Hope Lerokwe, 1999; UNCHS, 1996a). Negative environmental impacts that may result include groundwater contamination, health hazards, smell nuisance and environmental degradation (Moningka, 2000; WBG, 1998a). In addition, factors such as increasing population and human activities contribute to environmental problems such as poor access to safe water, poor waste management practices, poor health and environmental degradation (Henry et al. , 2006; Hope Lerokwe, 1999; UNCHS, 1996a; Walmsley Bottem, 1994). Such problems can be a consequence of increasing waste volumes. According to Hope Lerokwe (1999), the above are referred to as ‘brown problems’, and are said to be strongly affecting current generations, more especially the poor people living in urban areas. Living in such conditions threaten people’s standards of health, security and even life itself (UNCHS, 1996b). Despite the necessity to address the environmental problems, challenges are often experienced, particularly because some towns are lacking institutional capacities to deal with some of the serious problems, for example, controlling of hazardous waste (SoER, 2001; UNCHS, 1996a). The degree of environmental impacts of waste as a result of increasing populations in urban areas is a matter of concern. Of particular concern is the disposal of solid and liquid wastes, which can have negative environmental impacts such as pollution and diseases (UNCHS, 1996a). Waste products in general have negative effects on natural resources and the environment at large, 21 nd may constitute health hazards (CSA Smith, 2007; Walmsley Bottem, 1994). Consequently, waste has some implications in sustainable development. In terms of development, nations across the globe nowadays are aiming towards sustainability, whereby the concept of sustainable development needs to be applied in all aspects of developmen t, including environmental management. Namibia is not an exception to this (EMA, 2007). In the view of urban development, the concept being promoted is ‘urban sustainability’, herein defined as the level of urban development reached in an approach to development, whereby the natural and social urban environments are not compromised (Camagni et al. , 1998; Hope Lerokwe, 1999). Given its high importance and the severity of its need, waste management has become a concern for the Namibian government. For this reason, local authorities are placing increasing efforts in the management of waste across the country. To ensure urban sustainability in the towns of Namibia, various measures need to be in place, in response to the challenges posed by environmental threats, one of which is the increasing waste volumes. In the view of development, the following elements are considered as being of essence in the developmental approaches: use of policies and legal frameworks, stakeholder involvement as well as all relevant principles (Anschutzi, 1996; Aziegbe, 2007; Camagni et al. , 1998; EMA, 2007; Thomas-Hope, 1995; UNCHS, 1996a). Such elements involve actions needed to reduce the most serious problems, for example the handling of hazardous wastes from dangerous sites. They also contribute to strategies required to promote healthy and safe environments, as well as dealing with specific environmental aspects of concern in general. It is important to note that the environmental problems resulting from specific towns do not only impact those towns alone, they also affect other areas at different levels, for example at the regional and global levels (Camagni et al. , 1998). 22 The study presented herein has investigated the current status of municipal waste management in Namibia, using Windhoek as a case study. 1. 2. Problem Statement Namibia is still in its early stages of development, therefore all its developmental efforts should be considered crucial. As part of environmental management in Namibia, waste management should be placed as a priority in order to reduce negative environmental impacts. However, capacity to manage waste and to control pollution is limited (SoER, 2001). Apart from the management capacity, financial constraints are some of the limiting factors to effective waste management across the country. Namibia is arid to semi-arid, with variable rainfall, and has limited water sources; mainly ground and surface water (Dirkx et al. , 2008; Menge, 2006). These sources are at risk of contamination as a result of uncontrolled pollution and poor waste management practices. At the national level, the environment is threatened by unsafe waste disposal, which can be detrimental to the environmental integrity and can pose health hazards (CoW, 2008a; CSA Smith, 2007; SoER, 2001; UN, 2002). Not only health and environmental damage can result, unattended waste can present poor aesthetic view, causing the environment to be less visually appealing despite the fact that Namibia is a tourist destination. Furthermore, poor waste management is a threat to sustainable development and can have long-term impacts if no improvement is made (SoER, 2001). The Namibian towns, especially Windhoek are challenged by the increasing population, mostly because of people from rural areas who are searching for better standards of living (CoW, 2008a). Urban population growth in Namibia is also influenced by the migration of people from other countries, for example, the neighbouring countries of Angola and Zimbabwe, and other countries such as China that invest in business. It is clear that there is a link between waste and socio-economic development; therefore as the population increases, the amount of waste generated increases too (Henry et al. , 2006; SoER, 2001; SWMD, 2008). 23 This further puts pressure on the disposal facilities (CSA Smith, 2007). There are a number of relevant waste management principles that contribute to reduced waste volumes (Christiansen, 1999; EMA, 2007; Fatta Moll, 2003; Guiao, 2008; Jacobsen Kristofferson, 2002; STC, 2008; NEMWA, 2008; SoER, 2001; Vito Reibstein, 2008; Winchester et al. , 2002). However, it is questionable whether their values have been realized. And if so, it is questioned as to whether they are being implemented in Namibia, particularly because some town management systems seem to be ineffective when it comes to addressing waste. Individual towns need to place more efforts in the management of waste in order to prevent and minimize waste for the purpose of reducing environmental impacts that may result due to increasing waste volumes (Jacobsen Kristoffersen, 2002; WGB, 1998a). If at all possible, a waste management system that could be implemented by all towns needs to be developed. After all, Namibia can only be a better place to live provided that sound waste management is encouraged. This research attempted to answer the following question: How can Namibia maintain a well-managed system for municipal waste management in future? 1. 3. Research Aim The overall aim of this research was to investigate how waste is being managed at the municipal level in Namibia, in order to recommend a possible system for handling waste across urban Namibia in future. 1. 4. Objectives The specific objectives were to: 1. identify the principles of waste management being used in Namibia; 2. identify the stakeholders of waste management in Namibia; 24 3. establish an understanding of the waste management system in Windhoek; 4. identify areas of improvement in terms of waste management in Namibia. 1. 6. 1. 6. Methodology The researcher worked closely with various town municipalities in Namibia in order to get an idea of how waste is being managed at the municipal level. The towns where the surveys were conducted are: Luderitz, Mariental, Oshakati, Ongwediva, Ondangwa, Oranjemund, Otjiwarongo, Swakopmund and Windhoek. 1. 6. 1. 1. 6. 1. Research Design The researcher conducted an empirical research that is both qualitative and quantitative, which presented original research findings (Maree, 2008; Mouton, 2001). It is qualitative in the sense that it aimed to explore the real situation concerning waste management in various towns of Namibia. Two types of qualitative research designs were involved: action research and case study research. Action research is acknowledged as a research method that is collaborative and participatory, focusing on a practical problem experienced by participants for whom a practical solution is sought (Maree, 2008). The action research is qualitative particularly because it strongly focuses on understanding the problem and is explicitly committed to the empowerment of the participants, and will in the end contribute to changing their current situation (Mouton, 2001). The case study research was used as an approach to establish an understanding of the concerned situation (waste management at the municipal level) by focusing on a specific town instead of being general. Windhoek was selected as a case study for this research. Such an approach aimed to investigate, describe and explain the phenomenon of interest through obtaining different view points as the researcher interacted with various participants (Maree, 2008). This approach helped the researcher to develop an understanding of the dynamics of waste management systems for Windhoek, and in general. 25 Apart from obtaining the qualitative data, the research also involved an objective process, which aimed to collect numerical data from a focal population (Windhoek), in order to generalize them at a broader scale i. e. for the entire country; hence quantitative. This type of research was non-experimental since it only aimed to describe the situation at hand without being manipulative (Maree, 2008). 1. 6. 2. Data Collection Strategy Primary data were collected for this research. These are new/original data collected through the self-administered questionnaire, interviews (face-to-face and telephonically) and through personal observations as described by Maree (2008) and Newman (1999). However, secondary data from past studies were also used for the purpose of quantification. Each of the surveyed town was provided with a self-administered questionnaire that presented questions concerning the required information. These were shared with respondents electronically. When necessary, follow up questions were asked through emails or over the phone. Prior to the development of the questionnaire, the researcher approached the selected towns with a question: How is waste being managed in your town? This question was rather broad, which caused many people to find it difficult to respond. As a result, the researcher rather simplified the main question, by breaking it down to many different questions that were rather straight to the point (see Annex I). The interviews aimed to obtain rich descriptive data that helped the researcher to get broader inputs based on the participants’ knowledge (Maree, 2008). Direct observations also helped the researcher to gain some insight on the issues of interest concerning waste management, for example, how waste is collected, transported, recycled, treated and disposed. This included on-site visits. Such an approach helped to validate the data collected through other methods (Mouton, 2001). 26 1. 6. 3. Sampling Design For the purpose of selecting the study population, the stratified purposive sampling method was used. This method was used because the researcher was interested to work with participants who are knowledgeable about the waste management systems in their respective towns at the municipal level (Maree, 2008). Given their equal selection probabilities, the surveyed towns were randomly selected in order to provide the required data. Out of 31 towns of Namibia, 11 (35. %) were selected, of which only 9 (29. 03%) actively participated in the research. The researcher therefore used a proportion of 29. 0% as a representative sample to generali ze its results to the entire population. Such a proportion was deemed valid because it gave an idea of how waste is managed in Namibia in general, particularly because a case study research design was also involved, which presented a broader view on waste management systems. This helped the researcher to achieve the research aim. 1. 6. 4. Data Analysis The qualitative data collected from various towns were summarized to help the researcher to understand and interpret what could be deduced from them. With such data the researcher was able to get an insight of how waste is being handled as well as to identify the areas that need improvement. In terms of the quantitative data, the researcher gathered numerical data, particularly with respect to waste generation, from which waste indicators were calculated. This information helped the researcher to propose a waste management system for Namibia and to answer the research question. 1. 7. 1. 7. Limitations to the Research Getting an overview of waste data from different sources such as industrial waste, commercial waste and household waste, particularly the quantities of wastes generated, treated, recycled or disposed of would have added value to the findings of this study. However, the researcher could not obtain data on industrial and commercial waste, since they are handled by private companies. Such information is not publicly shared. 27 1. 8. Research Ethics . 8. This research was conducted as response to the current situation of the need to effectively manage waste as an approach to promoting urban sustainability in Namibia. The research attempted to collect all the relevant data regarding waste management in Namibia, and specifically in Windhoek which was used as a case study. The aim was to come up with recommendations on a possible system that can be applied across Namibia in future. In the end, the research findings will be shared with all relevant waste management stakeholders. The ethical issues of consideration for this research are: †¢ †¢ the identities of the questionnaire respondents have not be revealed; the dissertation has not revealed the towns that have demonstrated some weaknesses in terms of waste management practices, instead, statistics were used to present the proportions of those towns; †¢ †¢ most relevant stakeholders were consulted; and the use of other people’s work has been acknowledged (Maree, 2008; Mouton, 2001). 28 2: CHAPTER 2: THEORIES OF WASTE MANAGEMENT 2. 1. 2. 1. Introduction On a global scale, waste management is a serious environmental concern. This is due to the fact that waste is a threat to the environment, as it can have negative impacts when not managed. In fact, most cities in Southern Africa are challenged by the increasing volumes of waste (Hope Lerokwe, 1999). Waste can cause health hazards, smell nuisance, pests, diseases and other environmental problems if not well managed (Moningka, 2000). Waste from various sources such as sewers, septic tanks, pit latrines and disposal sites can also contaminate surface and groundwater, and this can adversely affect public health (CoW, undated; DWAF, 2004; Henry et al. , 2006; Winblad Simpso-Hebert, 2004). Consequently, it has become crucial for waste management to be placed as a priority especially that it is an environmental, social and economic issue (Aziegbe, 2007). Responsible waste management promotes environmental quality, contributes to sustainability and provides support to economic productions (Henry et al. , 2006). It involves implementation of measures that afford protection of human health and the environment at large, including: collection, transportation, processing, recycling, disposal, onsite handling, storage, treatment and monitoring of waste (Starkey, 1998). Waste management also involves prevention and minimization of waste (Jacobsen Kristoffersen, 2002). Furthermore it involves handling of solid, liquid, gaseous or radioactive substances that may originate from domestic, commercial or industrial activities. Overall, waste is handled by a wide range of stakeholders i. e. those individuals, authorities, institutions and organizations that have a stake in waste production and management (Anschutzi, 1996; Aziegbe, 2007; Berchtold, 2002; STC, 2008). It is also important to note that handling of waste is a legal issue as far waste management is concerned. Eventually, handling of waste has been placed as a priority by legal frameworks at the national and international levels. 29 The definitions of waste as a single term vary from country to country. For the European Union (EU), waste is regarded as all items that people deem no longer have any use for them, which they either intend to get rid of or already discarded (Anon a. , undated). Waste in the EU also refers to all items which people are required to discard, for example by law because of their hazardous properties. According to the South African Environmental Management Waste Act 59 of 2008, waste means any substance, whether or not that substance can be reduced, reused, recycled and recovered that is surplus, unwanted, rejected, iscarded, abandoned or disposed of; which the generator has no further use of for the purposes of production; that must be treated or disposed of; or that is identified as a waste by the Minister by notice in the Gazette, and includes waste generated by the mining, medical or other sector, but a by-product is not considered waste; and any portion of waste, once re-used, recycled and recovered, ceases to be waste (NEMWA, 2008). In the Namibian context, waste is referred to as any matter whether gaseous, solid or liquid or any combination thereof, which is from time to time listed by the Minister by notice in the Gazette or by regulation as an undesirable or superfluous by-product, emission, residue or a remainder of any process or activity (EMA, 2007). More other definitions exist in individual countries; however, they are all making a common point, that waste is unwanted, and should therefore be managed. Different types of wastes are produced by day-to-day human activities. Such waste can be classified as: municipal waste, commercial waste, industrial waste, household waste, hazardous waste, radioactive waste and other wastes. These are all in dire need of effective management. For the purpose of this dissertation, some waste management terminologies have been defined for clarification (see Table 2. 1). 30 Table 2. 1. Waste management terminologies definitions TERM Municipal waste Industrial waste TYPES OF WASTE Household waste Commercial waste Hazardous waste Radioactive waste Other wastes Waste reduction Waste minimization Waste prevention Waste treatment WASTE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES DEFINITION Waste collected by municipalities independently of the source of waste. Type of waste produced by industrial activities. Waste normally generated from houses. Waste generated by commercial activities. Waste that could be an immediate threat to either human health or the environment. Waste containing radioactive elements. Unclassified discarded materials that have no value to the user. Reducing waste in terms of quantity. Reducing waste at its source, before it is even generated and through environmentally sound management practices. Measures aiming at reducing the quantity and the harmfulness of wastes to the environment. Processes (physical, thermal, chemical or biological) that change the characteristics of waste in order to reduce its volume or hazardous nature, facilitate its handling or enhance recovery. Waste disposal Any waste management operation serving or carrying out the final treatment and disposal of waste without any intention to negatively impact the environment. Recycling Re-use Reprocessing of waste materials for the original purpose or for other purposes. Any operation by which products are used on more than one occasions for the same purpose for which they were conceived or for other purposes, without the need for reprocessing. 2. 2. 2. 2. Fundamental Principles of Waste Management In order to avoid adverse impacts of waste in the environment, various waste management strategies that afford the protection of human health and the environment are implemented. Such strategies present the waste managers with challenges and opportunities of handling waste, as each strategy is applied based on the nature and amount of waste being handled (Christiansen, 1999). Waste management strategies are prioritized by individual choices, and this contributes to 31 achieving other priorities such as issues related to health, urban governance, employment, tourism development and resource recovery (RMG, undated; Soni, 2005). Moreover, responsible waste management requires a development of legal frameworks that set out laws and regulations specifically geared towards responsible implementation of the waste management strategies. The following waste management strategies are implemented in efforts to manage waste and for the purpose of reducing the environmental impacts of waste: 1) prevention of waste generation, 2) waste recovery (recycling, re-use and waste treatment) and 3) disposal of waste in an environmentally safe manner. In fact, this is the waste management hierarchy. In essence, the principles of waste management aim to promote sound environmental management. Consequently, if applied appropriately, important issues of concern such as protection of human health, protection of the environment at large, protection of resources for future generations as well as reduction of burdens for future generations will be addressed (Christiansen, 1999; Fatta Moll, 2003; Jacobsen Kristoffersen, 2002; STC, 2008) . Apart from the waste management strategies highlighted above, more other principles for responsible waste management have been developed, including: 1) the â€Å"polluter pays principle†, which requires the waste producers to pay for the waste generated or the damage caused; 2) the â€Å"user pays principle†, which requires the user of resources to pay the service providers for services offered on the management of the resources; 3) the â€Å"product-stewardship principle†, which requires the waste producer or importer of a waste product to take responsible steps towards the minimization of environmental impacts of the product; 4) awareness raising principle, which alerts the public of the consequences of irresponsible waste management and promotes the reduction of waste; and 5) the sustainable use of resources principle, which contributes to the reduction of waste in the environment (Vito Reibstein, 2008; EMA, 2007; Guiao, 2008; NEMWA, 2008; SoER, 2001; Winches ter et al. , 2002). Such principles, along with the waste management 32 hierarchy are implemented as efforts to fight the increasing waste volumes, wasting of resources and the negative environmental impacts. 2. 2. 1. 2. 2. 1. Waste Management Hierarchy The waste management hierarchy (as shown in Figure 2. 1) emphasizes that waste prevention should be an ultimate goal for any approach to waste management; after which the other options (recycling, re-use and treatment) can follow (STC, 2008). Thus if the hierarchy is effectively implemented, the waste to be disposed of after the first three hierarchical levels will be minimal. 2. 1. Figure 2. 1. Waste management hierarchy The waste management strategies presented in Figure 2. 1 should be viewed as being interconnected. Ultimately their hierarchy can be compared to the web of life where the members of species communities are interconnected within ecosystems (Capra, 1996; Capra, 1999). Communities operate as networks and are well organized. According to 33 Capra’s interpretation, ecosystems do not generate any waste. One species’ waste is another species’ food. This relationship can be related to the hierarchy of waste management, in which waste is passed between different hierarchy levels. What is discarded as waste in the first level is regarded as a resource in the second hierarchy level, while what is produced as waste from material recovery is fed into the third level for treatment; whereas the residue resulting from waste treatment is finally disposed of in the fourth level. Waste that cannot be treated or recycled can as well be disposed (Rousta, 2008). . 2. 1. 1. 2. 2. 1. 1. Waste Prevention In general, good waste management should start with preventing waste from being generated (Jacobsen Kristoffersen, 2002). This waste management strategy is a crucial aspect of sustainable urban management, as it reduces the amount of waste being pr oduced, while at the same time providing environmental protection. Reduction of waste is essential, given the fact that waste causes some pressure on the environment, including; leaching of nutrients, use of land for landfills, emission of greenhouse gases, air pollution, water pollution and secondary waste streams (Christiansen, 1999; STC, 2008; SWMD, 2008). According to Jacobsen Kristoffersen (2002), waste prevention should be placed as a high priority in waste management, particularly because it is the best way to stop the accumulation of waste and to reduce loss of resources. Preventing waste can be made possible through implementation of legal frameworks. However, forecasting the accuracy of such frameworks, for example policies is not possible (Christiansen, 1999). It is advisable that waste prevention should start at the source; which includes changing the mindset of handling waste, for example, shifting to cleaner production processes, using fewer resources in products and influencing consumer choice and demand in the market place in favor of less wasteful products and services (CEC, 2001). Berchtold (1995) has demonstrated proven profits from clean technologies for production industries. Responsibility over this waste management strategy lies in the hands of governments, local authorities and businesses (Botten Walmsley, 1994). 34 Re2. 2. 1. 2. Recycling and Re-use of Waste Materials Waste materials can be recovered through recycling and re-use processes. Recycling is a strategy used to recover value from waste for consumption (Starkey, 1998). Re-use refers to making use of discarded waste material products. These are waste minimization strategies that are implemented in order to reduce the amount of waste being generated (Jacobsen Kristoffersen, 2002). They are essential, particularly for the fact that they reduce the impact of waste in the environment. Even so, they are not 100% efficient. Recycling for example causes negative impacts on the environment through emissions as a result of waste material processing (Christiansen, 1999). As a strategy to reduce the life-cycle impacts of products, the use of materials that can easily be recycled is practiced (STC, 2008). Practically, recycling benefits the environment by reducing the use of virgin materials as well as toxicity in some instances (Rousta, 2008). In addition, recycling recovers a lot of waste while causing less waste to be disposed (Lorek et al. , 2001). In the view of re-using waste materials, discarding of materials to the waste stream is avoided, as this strategy does not require processing. As a result, re-use of waste materials can be of environmental benefit. Nevertheless, in any case the reuse of non-hazardous waste should consider the potential risk to human health and the environment at large (Townsend Carlson, 1997). 2. 2. 1. 3. 2. 2. 1. 3. Waste Treatment Third ranking in the waste management hierarchy, waste treatment is considered for the purpose of reducing the waste volume or its hazardous nature (Jacobsen Kristoffersen, 2002; Menge, 2009; WIP, 2009). Such a waste management strategy enhances energy recovery from waste through physical, chemical, biological or thermal processes. Any waste management method or technique that has been designed to change the physical, biological or chemical character of waste composition or recover/reduce the toxicity of waste in order to minimize the impacts of waste in the environment plays a role in waste treatment (WIP, 2009). 35 Treatment of waste is made possible through the use of various technologies, one of which is incineration. In this technique, waste is converted to gases or residues by thermal means. Incineration has been acknowledged as a useful way of recovering energy, while at the same time reducing the negative environmental impacts components, for example methane (Farah, 2002). According to Farah, approximately 70% of waste mass can be reduced, while about 90% of waste volume can be reduced through incineration. Despite its positive impacts, incineration can have negative environmental impacts, which can result from the emissions and solid residues produced and through the utilization of solid residues (Lorek et al. , 2001). Apart from incineration, other waste treatment means can also have negative impacts on the environment for example soil pollution, which can cause groundwater pollution in the end. In situations where water is scarce, wastewater can be treated and re-used to meet the water shortage and increasing needs (du Pisani, 2006; FAO, 2003; Menge, 2006). Wastewater treatment is a process through which contaminants are removed from wastewater and household sewage. Such a process may involve physical, chemical and biological processes to remove physical, chemical and biological contaminants (Menge, 2006; Wikipedia, 2009a). Through various stages of treatment, floating materials such as grease and oil are skimmed off; while the biological contents, for example, those derived from human waste, food waste, soaps and detergent are degraded. The organic materials and suspended solids are also removed. In the end, a liquid sludge is produced, which is further treated before the final disposal (Oaeb pers. comm. , 2009). So far there is no process that completely eliminates the need to dispose of solid residues/biosolids. In fact, wastewater treatment without residues would break the web of life, as described earlier, based on Capra’s interpretation of the web of life. Biosolids can be of advantage because they can be used for other purposes, such as fertilizer or as energy carrier for incineration. Some wastewater treatment plants also use biogas from anaerobic treatment for plant operations or electricity production or both (Berchtold pers. comm. , 2009). 36 Treated water can then be used for some purposes such as domestic consumption or for irrigation (du Pisani, 2006; FAO, 2003; Menge, 2009). If well managed, wastewater can have positive impacts on the environment and health. All the same, waste water can also have adverse effects on the environment and can have negative effects on soil, ground water, surface water bodies, crops and animal health (Mara Cairncross, 1989). 2. 2. 1. 4. 2. 2. 1. 4. Waste Disposal The least prioritized strategy of waste management is waste disposal. In this method, waste is buried, deposited, discharged, dumped or released in places where they remain for the long-term. In many cases, urban solid or hazardous wastes are deposited or dumped in specially engineered landfills (DWAF, 1998). This method is used as a final step to dispose the waste that cannot be recycled or treated, together with the residue that comes from the