Waste Manageemnt in Namibia free essay sample

I am further extending my appreciation to my siblings for their support and encouragement. I would also like to give thanks to my friends for support and encouragement, and to give special thanks to Mr Leonard Haindongo for his assistance with data collection. Many thanks to my respondents from the following town municipalities and councils for their valuable contributions to my research: Luderitz Town Council, Mariental Town Municipality, Ongwediva Town Council, Ondangwa Town Council, Oshakati Town Council, Otjiwarongo Municipality, Swakopmund Municipality, Windhoek Municipality, as well as the Oranjemund Town Management Company. At the national level, the environment is threatened by unsafe waste disposal, which is detrimental to the environmental integrity and posing health hazards. Waste management is important aspect of environmental management in Namibia, due to the fact that waste is a threat to the integrity of the environment. Waste is among the so called ‘brown problems’, which strongly affects poor people in urban areas. Challenges for managing waste in Namibia are: lack of institutional capacities in some towns to deal with some of the serious waste problems, limited capacity to manage waste and to control pollution, and financial constraints. The disposal of solid and liquid wastes is a concern in Namibia, especially that waste has some implications in sustainable development. Therefore waste management has become a concern for the Namibian government. The study presented herein has investigated the current status of municipal waste management in Namibia, using Windhoek as a case study. Namibian towns, especially Windhoek are challenged by the increasing population, the link between waste and socio-economic development, as well as increasing amounts of waste generated which puts pressure on disposal facilities. At the moment, some town management systems seem to be ineffective in addressing waste management for the purpose of preventing and minimizing waste in order to reduce environmental impacts that may result due to increasing waste volumes. It was deemed necessary to develop a waste management system that could be implemented by 10 all towns. Moreover, sound waste management needs to be encouraged in Namibia. The overall aim of this research was to investigate how waste is being managed at the municipal level in Namibia, in order to recommend a possible system for handling waste across urban Namibia in future. The methodology employed for this research comprised of: literature survey, use of questionnaire, personal interviews, on-site data gathering and data analysis. The researcher worked closely with various town municipalities in Namibia in order to get an idea of how waste is being managed at the municipal level. The towns where the surveys were conducted Oranjemund, are: Luderitz, Mariental, Oshakati, and Ongwediva, The Ondangwa, researcher Otjiwarongo, Swakopmund Windhoek. conducted an empirical research that is both qualitative and quantitative, presenting original research findings. As part of the design, a case study research was used as an approach to establish an understanding of the concerned situation (waste management at the municipal level) by being focused on Windhoek instead of generalizing. Primary data were collected for this research; however, secondary data from past studies were also used for the purpose of quantification. For the purpose of selecting the study population, the stratified purposive sampling method was used. Out of 31 towns of Namibia, 11 (35. 5%) were selected, of which only 9 (29. 03%) actively participated in the research. Such a proportion was deemed valid because it gave an idea of how waste is managed in Namibia in general, particularly because a case study research design was also involved, which presented a broader view on waste management systems. This helped the researcher to achieve the research aim. To analyze the data, the researcher summarized the qualitative data collected from various towns, which helped to understand them better and interpret them. In terms of quantitative data, the researcher gathered numerical data, particularly with respect to waste generation, from which waste indicators were calculated. This information helped the researcher to propose a waste management system for Namibia and to answer the research question. 11 However, the researcher could not obtain data on industrial and commercial waste, since they are handled by private companies. Such information is not publicly shared. Overall, waste is handled by a wide range of stakeholders i. e. those individuals, authorities, institutions and organizations that have a stake in waste production and management. It is also important to realize that handling of waste is a legal issue as far as waste management is concerned. Therefore policies, laws are regulations are developed to regulate waste management at the national, regional and international levels The definitions of waste as a single term vary from country to country. In the Namibian context, waste is referred to as any matter whether gaseous, solid or liquid or any combination thereof, which is from time to time listed by the Minister by notice in the Gazette or by regulation as an undesirable or superfluous byproduct, emission, residue or a remainder of any process or activity (EMA, 2007). The following waste management strategies are implemented in efforts to manage waste and for the purpose of reducing the environmental impacts of waste: 1) prevention of waste generation, 2) waste recovery (recycling, re-use and waste treatment) and 3) disposal of waste in an environmentally safe manner. This is referred to as the waste management hierarchy, and it emphasizes that waste prevention should be an ultimate goal for any approach to waste management; after which the other options (recycling, re-use and treatment) can follow. Waste management being one of the approaches to environmental management should be aiming towards sustainable development, the development that aims to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs through sustainable use of natural resources. The management of waste is now moving towards a more holistic and sustainable approach, with much emphasis being placed on the environmental impacts of waste materials and products throughout their lifetimes. Sustainable use of 12 resources as an approach to waste management is promoted by the Namibian Environmental Management Act No. 7 of 2007. As a result of this approach, volumes of waste generated are reduced through improved waste prevention measures, improved resource efficiency and a shift to more sustainable consumption patterns. With responsible waste management stakeholders and legal frameworks in place, implementation of waste management strategies can be a success story. Municipal waste is the waste collected by municipalities independently of the source of waste. It includes waste originated from households, small businesses, institutions and communities. Knowing the statistics on municipal waste being produced and managed from various sources of origin is therefore essential for the purpose of monitoring, decision-making as well as for the development of waste policies. In terms of recycling, at least 88. 9% of the towns that were surveyed practice recycling of waste materials. Those are mainly the towns that have recycling companies or projects. The towns that do not have recycling companies do a local collection of waste materials that are sent to other towns or abroad for recycling. Although re-use is one of the waste recovery strategies, not all towns use it. Treatment of waste as a waste management principle is practiced in all the towns that were contacted for this study. The common type of waste being treated is wastewater/sewage. Apart from wastewater treatment, medical waste is also treated in Oranjemund and Windhoek through incineration. In Windhoek, incineration of medical waste is done by the Ministry of Health and Social Services, after which the Windhoek Municipality takes care of the residue. In all the towns that were contacted, there are organized methods of collecting waste from households, which are transported to landfill sites for disposal. Noteworthy, the landfills differ in types, sizes and in potentials to threaten the 13 environment. Waste materials being disposed of at the disposal sites in various towns include: household waste, building rubbles, garden refuse, industrial waste, hospital waste and general waste. Hazardous waste is disposed of at specially engineered landfill sites. Given the fact that handling of waste is a legal issue, the Environmental Management Act of Namibia has set a law that no waste should be discarded at any waste disposal site that has not been declared or approved by the Minister of Environment and Tourism. Namibia? s economy depends largely on the wealth and exploitation of natural resources. Thus it is important to promote sound environmental management, which is essential for the protection of resources. South environmental management is also necessary for reducing negative environmental impacts and in fact for economic growth. In terms of the socio-economy, high unemployment, poverty, income inequality, pandemic HIV and AIDS, and lack of skills are the major challenges in Namibia. In essence, waste should be managed in Namibia in order to reduce waste generation and to avoid negative environmental impacts. This is mainly due to the increasing population and economic activities, which play a role in waste generation. Waste management in Namibia is a responsibility of all residents, local authorities, government ministries, private sector and businesses. This study has identified a number of waste management stakeholders identified in different towns of Namibia. Nevertheless, waste management remains a priority for the government, with different government ministries being involved in formulating policies and strategies for dealing with waste and its management. The municipal waste is handled by town municipalities and councils, with support from private contractors. The Division of Solid Waste Management within the City of Windhoek is acknowledged for keeping Windhoek the cleanest town in Africa. It ensures that 14 all waste generated is collected, transported and disposed of. Waste generated from households is collected by this division. Business waste is collected by both the Solid Waste Management Division and private companies, while the waste generated from industrial areas and from open spaces is specifically collected by individual contractors and private companies. In terms of waste disposal in Windhoek, there are six general landfill sites that are referred to as ‘satellite sites’. Garden refuse and building rubbles are disposed of at those sites. The satellite sites located in various locations within the Windhoek municipal area, namely: Havana, Khomasdal, Pioneerspark, Eros, Olympia and Ludwigsdorf. Approximately 169,915. 4 tons (84,957. 2 m3) of building rubbles and 26,442. 23 tons (88,170. 75 m3) of garden refuse were disposed of at the satellite sites in 2008. On average approximately 14,159. 54 tons (7079. 7 m3) of building rubbles and 2,204. 27 tons (7347. 56 m3) of garden refuse were disposed of per month. In addition, approximately 119,916 tons (59,958 m3) of sand and fill were disposed there in 2008, with an average of 10,970 tons (5,485 m3) disposed per month. Apart from the disposal of garden waste and building rubbles, general and hazardous wastes are disposed of at a specially engineered landfill site known as Kupfer berg that is located about 11 km from the city centre. At this site, two separate cells are used for the purpose of waste disposal. The general wastes generated from households, commercial and industrial activities are disposed of in the general cell; while the hazardous wastes are disposed of in the hazardous cell. In order to prevent any leakage of leachate from contaminating the soil and ground water, the site is lined with some layers. This study has found that roughly an amount of 229. 48 kg of the general waste was disposed per capita per year in 2008, while the amount of hazardous waste disposed per capita per year was 16. 8 kg. 15 Recycling as a waste management strategy is practiced in Windhoek. Various recyclable materials are collected from the landfill sites, including: papers, cartons, plastics, glasses and cans. These are compacted and weighed, then transported to the recycling companies. The recycling companies have to ensure that all recyclable materials are semi-processed, after which they are packaged and send to South Africa for recycling, since there is currently no recycling plant in Namibia. The recyclable materials collected at the Kupferberg landfill site have been divided into fractions as shown in the diagram below. Approximately 55% of the general waste is made up of non-recyclable materials, however, there is a potential for recycling other types of waste, for example, garden refuse that is accidentally disposed there. The diagram below presents the fractions of the recyclable materials being disposed of at Kupferberg, compared with the amount of nonrecyclable materials. 9% 14% Paper 4% 55% 6% 4% 7% 1% Glass Metal Carton Plastics (hard) Plastics (soft) Wood Non-recyclables Recently a recycling initiative has been started in Windhoek, that is being managed by the private sector. Such an initiative could potentially be replicated in other towns, however challenges associated with costs and transport have been experienced. Wastewater treatment in Windhoek is essential, particularly because water is a scarce commodity. For this reason, the City of Windhoek has adopted a policy of treating wastewater in order to meet the water demand needs. Currently there are 16 three water treatment plants in Windhoek, which are used to treat wastewater for consumption. At least 35% of drinking water in Windhoek is reclaimed. Waste auditing is one of the important practical aspects of waste management. The City of Windhoek conducts waste audits a bi-annual basis. Based on the household waste audits performed in 2004 and 2008, the average amount of waste generated per person per day was 0. 37 kg and 0. 49 kg respectively. However, according to the waste data collected from Windhoek households between July 2006 and March 2007, the amount of waste generated per person per day ranges between 0. 604 – 0. 813 kg, which is quite high and is expected to increase. Such an amount needs to be reduced. The audits conducted in 2004 and 2008 were compared, after which not so much difference was found. This led to a recommendation that waste audits should be performed every 5 years. This study identified some weaknesses concerning waste management in the towns of Namibia. Such weaknesses can be used as opportunities for improvement. In addition, reliable waste data need to be provided, as they play a significant role in waste management. Availability of such data contributes to decision-making processes, as well as to the implementation of waste management strategies. Waste indicators such as waste generated per capita need to be determined, as they are necessary to point out the problematic areas and possibilities of improvement. This study has come up with a waste indicator model, based on different waste streams in Windhoek in 2008 (see Table below). Based on this model, the amount of waste that was disposed per capita per year in Windhoek was 1,315. 51kg. This indicator was used to extrapolate the amounts disposed in other towns, as well as the total amount of waste disposed in overall urban Namibia. Given the high estimates of waste disposed per year, recycling was recommended as the best strategy for reducing such amounts. 17 Waste indicator General waste per year General waste per month General waste per capita Hazardous waste per year Hazardous waste per month Hazardous waste per capita Construction waste per year Construction waste per month Construction waste per capita Garden refuse per year Garden refuse per month Garden refuse per capita Sand fill per year Sand fill per month Sand fill per capita Estimates 67,925. 52 5,660. 46 Estimated indicators Units tonnes 230 4,970. 58 414. 22 17 169,914 14,160. 0 574. 03 26,451. 30 2204. 4 89. 36 119,916 10,970 405. 12 kg/capita/year tonnes kg/capita/year tones tones kg/capita/year tones tones kg/capita/year tones Kg/capita/year Capita Total waste per capita and year 296000 1315. 51 kg/capita/year The findings of this study suggest that the waste management system currently being used in Windhoek can be used as a model for the e ntire Namibia, as it has made it the cleanest city in Africa. Such system still have a potential to be further improved, however, it can still be considered the best-practice waste management system in Namibia. 18 ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS AIDS BAT BATNEEC CBD CBO COBA COD DEA EEuP EIA ELVs EU GDP GWTP HIV ISWM ICT MAWF MDG MET MFMR MME MOHSS MRLGH MTI MWTC NBL NDP NEWS NGO NGRP Acquired Immuno deficiency Syndrome Best Available Techniques Best Available Technology Not Entailing Excessive Costs Central Business District Community Based Organisation Cost-Benefit-Analysis Chemical Oxygen Demand Directorate of Environmental Affairs Eco-design of Energy-using Products Environmental Impact Assessment End-of-Life Vehicles European Union Gross Domestic Product Gammams Wastewater Treatment Plant Human Immuno deficiency Virus Integrated Sustainable Waste Management Information Communication Technology Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry Millenium Development Goal Ministry of Environment and Tourism Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources Ministry of Mines and Energy Ministry of Health and Social Services Ministry of Regional, Local Government and Housing Ministry of Trade and Industry Ministry of Works, Transport and Communication Namibia Breweries Limited National Development Plan Namibia Environment and Wildlife Society Non-Governmental Organisation New Goreangab Reclamation Plant 19 NMA NPC OECD OGRP OWTP REB RoHS UWTP WEEE Namibia Manufacturing Association National Planning Commission Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development Old Goreangab Reclamation Plant Otjomuise Wastewater Treatment Plant Responsible Environmental Behaviour Restriction of the Use of certain Hazardous Substances in electrical and electronic equipment Ujams Water Treatment Plant Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment 20 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1. . 1. 1. Background Waste management is one of the important aspects of environmental management in Namibia (EMA, 2007). Waste on its own is a threat to the integrity of the environment, as it can have negative environmental impacts which result from environmental threats such as air pollution, illegal dumping of waste, littering, poor sanitation, emission of green house gases, urbanization and poverty (Moningka, 2000; Henry et al. , 2006; Hope Lerokwe, 1999; UNCHS, 1996a). Negative environmental impacts that may result include groundwater contamination, health hazards, smell nuisance and environmental degradation (Moningka, 2000; WBG, 1998a). In addition, factors such as increasing population and human activities contribute to environmental problems such as poor access to safe water, poor waste management practices, poor health and environmental degradation (Henry et al. , 2006; Hope Lerokwe, 1999; UNCHS, 1996a; Walmsley Bottem, 1994). Such problems can be a consequence of increasing waste volumes. According to Hope Lerokwe (1999), the above are referred to as ‘brown problems’, and are said to be strongly affecting current generations, more especially the poor people living in urban areas. Living in such conditions threaten people’s standards of health, security and even life itself (UNCHS, 1996b). Despite the necessity to address the environmental problems, challenges are often experienced, particularly because some towns are lacking institutional capacities to deal with some of the serious problems, for example, controlling of hazardous waste (SoER, 2001; UNCHS, 1996a). The degree of environmental impacts of waste as a result of increasing populations in urban areas is a matter of concern. Of particular concern is the disposal of solid and liquid wastes, which can have negative environmental impacts such as pollution and diseases (UNCHS, 1996a). Waste products in general have negative effects on natural resources and the environment at large, 21 nd may constitute health hazards (CSA Smith, 2007; Walmsley Bottem, 1994). Consequently, waste has some implications in sustainable development. In terms of development, nations across the globe nowadays are aiming towards sustainability, whereby the concept of sustainable development needs to be applied in all aspects of developmen t, including environmental management. Namibia is not an exception to this (EMA, 2007). In the view of urban development, the concept being promoted is ‘urban sustainability’, herein defined as the level of urban development reached in an approach to development, whereby the natural and social urban environments are not compromised (Camagni et al. , 1998; Hope Lerokwe, 1999). Given its high importance and the severity of its need, waste management has become a concern for the Namibian government. For this reason, local authorities are placing increasing efforts in the management of waste across the country. To ensure urban sustainability in the towns of Namibia, various measures need to be in place, in response to the challenges posed by environmental threats, one of which is the increasing waste volumes. In the view of development, the following elements are considered as being of essence in the developmental approaches: use of policies and legal frameworks, stakeholder involvement as well as all relevant principles (Anschutzi, 1996; Aziegbe, 2007; Camagni et al. , 1998; EMA, 2007; Thomas-Hope, 1995; UNCHS, 1996a). Such elements involve actions needed to reduce the most serious problems, for example the handling of hazardous wastes from dangerous sites. They also contribute to strategies required to promote healthy and safe environments, as well as dealing with specific environmental aspects of concern in general. It is important to note that the environmental problems resulting from specific towns do not only impact those towns alone, they also affect other areas at different levels, for example at the regional and global levels (Camagni et al. , 1998). 22 The study presented herein has investigated the current status of municipal waste management in Namibia, using Windhoek as a case study. 1. 2. Problem Statement Namibia is still in its early stages of development, therefore all its developmental efforts should be considered crucial. As part of environmental management in Namibia, waste management should be placed as a priority in order to reduce negative environmental impacts. However, capacity to manage waste and to control pollution is limited (SoER, 2001). Apart from the management capacity, financial constraints are some of the limiting factors to effective waste management across the country. Namibia is arid to semi-arid, with variable rainfall, and has limited water sources; mainly ground and surface water (Dirkx et al. , 2008; Menge, 2006). These sources are at risk of contamination as a result of uncontrolled pollution and poor waste management practices. At the national level, the environment is threatened by unsafe waste disposal, which can be detrimental to the environmental integrity and can pose health hazards (CoW, 2008a; CSA Smith, 2007; SoER, 2001; UN, 2002). Not only health and environmental damage can result, unattended waste can present poor aesthetic view, causing the environment to be less visually appealing despite the fact that Namibia is a tourist destination. Furthermore, poor waste management is a threat to sustainable development and can have long-term impacts if no improvement is made (SoER, 2001). The Namibian towns, especially Windhoek are challenged by the increasing population, mostly because of people from rural areas who are searching for better standards of living (CoW, 2008a). Urban population growth in Namibia is also influenced by the migration of people from other countries, for example, the neighbouring countries of Angola and Zimbabwe, and other countries such as China that invest in business. It is clear that there is a link between waste and socio-economic development; therefore as the population increases, the amount of waste generated increases too (Henry et al. , 2006; SoER, 2001; SWMD, 2008). 23 This further puts pressure on the disposal facilities (CSA Smith, 2007). There are a number of relevant waste management principles that contribute to reduced waste volumes (Christiansen, 1999; EMA, 2007; Fatta Moll, 2003; Guiao, 2008; Jacobsen Kristofferson, 2002; STC, 2008; NEMWA, 2008; SoER, 2001; Vito Reibstein, 2008; Winchester et al. , 2002). However, it is questionable whether their values have been realized. And if so, it is questioned as to whether they are being implemented in Namibia, particularly because some town management systems seem to be ineffective when it comes to addressing waste. Individual towns need to place more efforts in the management of waste in order to prevent and minimize waste for the purpose of reducing environmental impacts that may result due to increasing waste volumes (Jacobsen Kristoffersen, 2002; WGB, 1998a). If at all possible, a waste management system that could be implemented by all towns needs to be developed. After all, Namibia can only be a better place to live provided that sound waste management is encouraged. This research attempted to answer the following question: How can Namibia maintain a well-managed system for municipal waste management in future? 1. 3. Research Aim The overall aim of this research was to investigate how waste is being managed at the municipal level in Namibia, in order to recommend a possible system for handling waste across urban Namibia in future. 1. 4. Objectives The specific objectives were to: 1. identify the principles of waste management being used in Namibia; 2. identify the stakeholders of waste management in Namibia; 24 3. establish an understanding of the waste management system in Windhoek; 4. identify areas of improvement in terms of waste management in Namibia. 1. 6. 1. 6. Methodology The researcher worked closely with various town municipalities in Namibia in order to get an idea of how waste is being managed at the municipal level. The towns where the surveys were conducted are: Luderitz, Mariental, Oshakati, Ongwediva, Ondangwa, Oranjemund, Otjiwarongo, Swakopmund and Windhoek. 1. 6. 1. 1. 6. 1. Research Design The researcher conducted an empirical research that is both qualitative and quantitative, which presented original research findings (Maree, 2008; Mouton, 2001). It is qualitative in the sense that it aimed to explore the real situation concerning waste management in various towns of Namibia. Two types of qualitative research designs were involved: action research and case study research. Action research is acknowledged as a research method that is collaborative and participatory, focusing on a practical problem experienced by participants for whom a practical solution is sought (Maree, 2008). The action research is qualitative particularly because it strongly focuses on understanding the problem and is explicitly committed to the empowerment of the participants, and will in the end contribute to changing their current situation (Mouton, 2001). The case study research was used as an approach to establish an understanding of the concerned situation (waste management at the municipal level) by focusing on a specific town instead of being general. Windhoek was selected as a case study for this research. Such an approach aimed to investigate, describe and explain the phenomenon of interest through obtaining different view points as the researcher interacted with various participants (Maree, 2008). This approach helped the researcher to develop an understanding of the dynamics of waste management systems for Windhoek, and in general. 25 Apart from obtaining the qualitative data, the research also involved an objective process, which aimed to collect numerical data from a focal population (Windhoek), in order to generalize them at a broader scale i. e. for the entire country; hence quantitative. This type of research was non-experimental since it only aimed to describe the situation at hand without being manipulative (Maree, 2008). 1. 6. 2. Data Collection Strategy Primary data were collected for this research. These are new/original data collected through the self-administered questionnaire, interviews (face-to-face and telephonically) and through personal observations as described by Maree (2008) and Newman (1999). However, secondary data from past studies were also used for the purpose of quantification. Each of the surveyed town was provided with a self-administered questionnaire that presented questions concerning the required information. These were shared with respondents electronically. When necessary, follow up questions were asked through emails or over the phone. Prior to the development of the questionnaire, the researcher approached the selected towns with a question: How is waste being managed in your town? This question was rather broad, which caused many people to find it difficult to respond. As a result, the researcher rather simplified the main question, by breaking it down to many different questions that were rather straight to the point (see Annex I). The interviews aimed to obtain rich descriptive data that helped the researcher to get broader inputs based on the participants’ knowledge (Maree, 2008). Direct observations also helped the researcher to gain some insight on the issues of interest concerning waste management, for example, how waste is collected, transported, recycled, treated and disposed. This included on-site visits. Such an approach helped to validate the data collected through other methods (Mouton, 2001). 26 1. 6. 3. Sampling Design For the purpose of selecting the study population, the stratified purposive sampling method was used. This method was used because the researcher was interested to work with participants who are knowledgeable about the waste management systems in their respective towns at the municipal level (Maree, 2008). Given their equal selection probabilities, the surveyed towns were randomly selected in order to provide the required data. Out of 31 towns of Namibia, 11 (35. %) were selected, of which only 9 (29. 03%) actively participated in the research. The researcher therefore used a proportion of 29. 0% as a representative sample to generali ze its results to the entire population. Such a proportion was deemed valid because it gave an idea of how waste is managed in Namibia in general, particularly because a case study research design was also involved, which presented a broader view on waste management systems. This helped the researcher to achieve the research aim. 1. 6. 4. Data Analysis The qualitative data collected from various towns were summarized to help the researcher to understand and interpret what could be deduced from them. With such data the researcher was able to get an insight of how waste is being handled as well as to identify the areas that need improvement. In terms of the quantitative data, the researcher gathered numerical data, particularly with respect to waste generation, from which waste indicators were calculated. This information helped the researcher to propose a waste management system for Namibia and to answer the research question. 1. 7. 1. 7. Limitations to the Research Getting an overview of waste data from different sources such as industrial waste, commercial waste and household waste, particularly the quantities of wastes generated, treated, recycled or disposed of would have added value to the findings of this study. However, the researcher could not obtain data on industrial and commercial waste, since they are handled by private companies. Such information is not publicly shared. 27 1. 8. Research Ethics . 8. This research was conducted as response to the current situation of the need to effectively manage waste as an approach to promoting urban sustainability in Namibia. The research attempted to collect all the relevant data regarding waste management in Namibia, and specifically in Windhoek which was used as a case study. The aim was to come up with recommendations on a possible system that can be applied across Namibia in future. In the end, the research findings will be shared with all relevant waste management stakeholders. The ethical issues of consideration for this research are: †¢ †¢ the identities of the questionnaire respondents have not be revealed; the dissertation has not revealed the towns that have demonstrated some weaknesses in terms of waste management practices, instead, statistics were used to present the proportions of those towns; †¢ †¢ most relevant stakeholders were consulted; and the use of other people’s work has been acknowledged (Maree, 2008; Mouton, 2001). 28 2: CHAPTER 2: THEORIES OF WASTE MANAGEMENT 2. 1. 2. 1. Introduction On a global scale, waste management is a serious environmental concern. This is due to the fact that waste is a threat to the environment, as it can have negative impacts when not managed. In fact, most cities in Southern Africa are challenged by the increasing volumes of waste (Hope Lerokwe, 1999). Waste can cause health hazards, smell nuisance, pests, diseases and other environmental problems if not well managed (Moningka, 2000). Waste from various sources such as sewers, septic tanks, pit latrines and disposal sites can also contaminate surface and groundwater, and this can adversely affect public health (CoW, undated; DWAF, 2004; Henry et al. , 2006; Winblad Simpso-Hebert, 2004). Consequently, it has become crucial for waste management to be placed as a priority especially that it is an environmental, social and economic issue (Aziegbe, 2007). Responsible waste management promotes environmental quality, contributes to sustainability and provides support to economic productions (Henry et al. , 2006). It involves implementation of measures that afford protection of human health and the environment at large, including: collection, transportation, processing, recycling, disposal, onsite handling, storage, treatment and monitoring of waste (Starkey, 1998). Waste management also involves prevention and minimization of waste (Jacobsen Kristoffersen, 2002). Furthermore it involves handling of solid, liquid, gaseous or radioactive substances that may originate from domestic, commercial or industrial activities. Overall, waste is handled by a wide range of stakeholders i. e. those individuals, authorities, institutions and organizations that have a stake in waste production and management (Anschutzi, 1996; Aziegbe, 2007; Berchtold, 2002; STC, 2008). It is also important to note that handling of waste is a legal issue as far waste management is concerned. Eventually, handling of waste has been placed as a priority by legal frameworks at the national and international levels. 29 The definitions of waste as a single term vary from country to country. For the European Union (EU), waste is regarded as all items that people deem no longer have any use for them, which they either intend to get rid of or already discarded (Anon a. , undated). Waste in the EU also refers to all items which people are required to discard, for example by law because of their hazardous properties. According to the South African Environmental Management Waste Act 59 of 2008, waste means any substance, whether or not that substance can be reduced, reused, recycled and recovered that is surplus, unwanted, rejected, iscarded, abandoned or disposed of; which the generator has no further use of for the purposes of production; that must be treated or disposed of; or that is identified as a waste by the Minister by notice in the Gazette, and includes waste generated by the mining, medical or other sector, but a by-product is not considered waste; and any portion of waste, once re-used, recycled and recovered, ceases to be waste (NEMWA, 2008). In the Namibian context, waste is referred to as any matter whether gaseous, solid or liquid or any combination thereof, which is from time to time listed by the Minister by notice in the Gazette or by regulation as an undesirable or superfluous by-product, emission, residue or a remainder of any process or activity (EMA, 2007). More other definitions exist in individual countries; however, they are all making a common point, that waste is unwanted, and should therefore be managed. Different types of wastes are produced by day-to-day human activities. Such waste can be classified as: municipal waste, commercial waste, industrial waste, household waste, hazardous waste, radioactive waste and other wastes. These are all in dire need of effective management. For the purpose of this dissertation, some waste management terminologies have been defined for clarification (see Table 2. 1). 30 Table 2. 1. Waste management terminologies definitions TERM Municipal waste Industrial waste TYPES OF WASTE Household waste Commercial waste Hazardous waste Radioactive waste Other wastes Waste reduction Waste minimization Waste prevention Waste treatment WASTE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES DEFINITION Waste collected by municipalities independently of the source of waste. Type of waste produced by industrial activities. Waste normally generated from houses. Waste generated by commercial activities. Waste that could be an immediate threat to either human health or the environment. Waste containing radioactive elements. Unclassified discarded materials that have no value to the user. Reducing waste in terms of quantity. Reducing waste at its source, before it is even generated and through environmentally sound management practices. Measures aiming at reducing the quantity and the harmfulness of wastes to the environment. Processes (physical, thermal, chemical or biological) that change the characteristics of waste in order to reduce its volume or hazardous nature, facilitate its handling or enhance recovery. Waste disposal Any waste management operation serving or carrying out the final treatment and disposal of waste without any intention to negatively impact the environment. Recycling Re-use Reprocessing of waste materials for the original purpose or for other purposes. Any operation by which products are used on more than one occasions for the same purpose for which they were conceived or for other purposes, without the need for reprocessing. 2. 2. 2. 2. Fundamental Principles of Waste Management In order to avoid adverse impacts of waste in the environment, various waste management strategies that afford the protection of human health and the environment are implemented. Such strategies present the waste managers with challenges and opportunities of handling waste, as each strategy is applied based on the nature and amount of waste being handled (Christiansen, 1999). Waste management strategies are prioritized by individual choices, and this contributes to 31 achieving other priorities such as issues related to health, urban governance, employment, tourism development and resource recovery (RMG, undated; Soni, 2005). Moreover, responsible waste management requires a development of legal frameworks that set out laws and regulations specifically geared towards responsible implementation of the waste management strategies. The following waste management strategies are implemented in efforts to manage waste and for the purpose of reducing the environmental impacts of waste: 1) prevention of waste generation, 2) waste recovery (recycling, re-use and waste treatment) and 3) disposal of waste in an environmentally safe manner. In fact, this is the waste management hierarchy. In essence, the principles of waste management aim to promote sound environmental management. Consequently, if applied appropriately, important issues of concern such as protection of human health, protection of the environment at large, protection of resources for future generations as well as reduction of burdens for future generations will be addressed (Christiansen, 1999; Fatta Moll, 2003; Jacobsen Kristoffersen, 2002; STC, 2008) . Apart from the waste management strategies highlighted above, more other principles for responsible waste management have been developed, including: 1) the â€Å"polluter pays principle†, which requires the waste producers to pay for the waste generated or the damage caused; 2) the â€Å"user pays principle†, which requires the user of resources to pay the service providers for services offered on the management of the resources; 3) the â€Å"product-stewardship principle†, which requires the waste producer or importer of a waste product to take responsible steps towards the minimization of environmental impacts of the product; 4) awareness raising principle, which alerts the public of the consequences of irresponsible waste management and promotes the reduction of waste; and 5) the sustainable use of resources principle, which contributes to the reduction of waste in the environment (Vito Reibstein, 2008; EMA, 2007; Guiao, 2008; NEMWA, 2008; SoER, 2001; Winches ter et al. , 2002). Such principles, along with the waste management 32 hierarchy are implemented as efforts to fight the increasing waste volumes, wasting of resources and the negative environmental impacts. 2. 2. 1. 2. 2. 1. Waste Management Hierarchy The waste management hierarchy (as shown in Figure 2. 1) emphasizes that waste prevention should be an ultimate goal for any approach to waste management; after which the other options (recycling, re-use and treatment) can follow (STC, 2008). Thus if the hierarchy is effectively implemented, the waste to be disposed of after the first three hierarchical levels will be minimal. 2. 1. Figure 2. 1. Waste management hierarchy The waste management strategies presented in Figure 2. 1 should be viewed as being interconnected. Ultimately their hierarchy can be compared to the web of life where the members of species communities are interconnected within ecosystems (Capra, 1996; Capra, 1999). Communities operate as networks and are well organized. According to 33 Capra’s interpretation, ecosystems do not generate any waste. One species’ waste is another species’ food. This relationship can be related to the hierarchy of waste management, in which waste is passed between different hierarchy levels. What is discarded as waste in the first level is regarded as a resource in the second hierarchy level, while what is produced as waste from material recovery is fed into the third level for treatment; whereas the residue resulting from waste treatment is finally disposed of in the fourth level. Waste that cannot be treated or recycled can as well be disposed (Rousta, 2008). . 2. 1. 1. 2. 2. 1. 1. Waste Prevention In general, good waste management should start with preventing waste from being generated (Jacobsen Kristoffersen, 2002). This waste management strategy is a crucial aspect of sustainable urban management, as it reduces the amount of waste being pr oduced, while at the same time providing environmental protection. Reduction of waste is essential, given the fact that waste causes some pressure on the environment, including; leaching of nutrients, use of land for landfills, emission of greenhouse gases, air pollution, water pollution and secondary waste streams (Christiansen, 1999; STC, 2008; SWMD, 2008). According to Jacobsen Kristoffersen (2002), waste prevention should be placed as a high priority in waste management, particularly because it is the best way to stop the accumulation of waste and to reduce loss of resources. Preventing waste can be made possible through implementation of legal frameworks. However, forecasting the accuracy of such frameworks, for example policies is not possible (Christiansen, 1999). It is advisable that waste prevention should start at the source; which includes changing the mindset of handling waste, for example, shifting to cleaner production processes, using fewer resources in products and influencing consumer choice and demand in the market place in favor of less wasteful products and services (CEC, 2001). Berchtold (1995) has demonstrated proven profits from clean technologies for production industries. Responsibility over this waste management strategy lies in the hands of governments, local authorities and businesses (Botten Walmsley, 1994). 34 Re2. 2. 1. 2. Recycling and Re-use of Waste Materials Waste materials can be recovered through recycling and re-use processes. Recycling is a strategy used to recover value from waste for consumption (Starkey, 1998). Re-use refers to making use of discarded waste material products. These are waste minimization strategies that are implemented in order to reduce the amount of waste being generated (Jacobsen Kristoffersen, 2002). They are essential, particularly for the fact that they reduce the impact of waste in the environment. Even so, they are not 100% efficient. Recycling for example causes negative impacts on the environment through emissions as a result of waste material processing (Christiansen, 1999). As a strategy to reduce the life-cycle impacts of products, the use of materials that can easily be recycled is practiced (STC, 2008). Practically, recycling benefits the environment by reducing the use of virgin materials as well as toxicity in some instances (Rousta, 2008). In addition, recycling recovers a lot of waste while causing less waste to be disposed (Lorek et al. , 2001). In the view of re-using waste materials, discarding of materials to the waste stream is avoided, as this strategy does not require processing. As a result, re-use of waste materials can be of environmental benefit. Nevertheless, in any case the reuse of non-hazardous waste should consider the potential risk to human health and the environment at large (Townsend Carlson, 1997). 2. 2. 1. 3. 2. 2. 1. 3. Waste Treatment Third ranking in the waste management hierarchy, waste treatment is considered for the purpose of reducing the waste volume or its hazardous nature (Jacobsen Kristoffersen, 2002; Menge, 2009; WIP, 2009). Such a waste management strategy enhances energy recovery from waste through physical, chemical, biological or thermal processes. Any waste management method or technique that has been designed to change the physical, biological or chemical character of waste composition or recover/reduce the toxicity of waste in order to minimize the impacts of waste in the environment plays a role in waste treatment (WIP, 2009). 35 Treatment of waste is made possible through the use of various technologies, one of which is incineration. In this technique, waste is converted to gases or residues by thermal means. Incineration has been acknowledged as a useful way of recovering energy, while at the same time reducing the negative environmental impacts components, for example methane (Farah, 2002). According to Farah, approximately 70% of waste mass can be reduced, while about 90% of waste volume can be reduced through incineration. Despite its positive impacts, incineration can have negative environmental impacts, which can result from the emissions and solid residues produced and through the utilization of solid residues (Lorek et al. , 2001). Apart from incineration, other waste treatment means can also have negative impacts on the environment for example soil pollution, which can cause groundwater pollution in the end. In situations where water is scarce, wastewater can be treated and re-used to meet the water shortage and increasing needs (du Pisani, 2006; FAO, 2003; Menge, 2006). Wastewater treatment is a process through which contaminants are removed from wastewater and household sewage. Such a process may involve physical, chemical and biological processes to remove physical, chemical and biological contaminants (Menge, 2006; Wikipedia, 2009a). Through various stages of treatment, floating materials such as grease and oil are skimmed off; while the biological contents, for example, those derived from human waste, food waste, soaps and detergent are degraded. The organic materials and suspended solids are also removed. In the end, a liquid sludge is produced, which is further treated before the final disposal (Oaeb pers. comm. , 2009). So far there is no process that completely eliminates the need to dispose of solid residues/biosolids. In fact, wastewater treatment without residues would break the web of life, as described earlier, based on Capra’s interpretation of the web of life. Biosolids can be of advantage because they can be used for other purposes, such as fertilizer or as energy carrier for incineration. Some wastewater treatment plants also use biogas from anaerobic treatment for plant operations or electricity production or both (Berchtold pers. comm. , 2009). 36 Treated water can then be used for some purposes such as domestic consumption or for irrigation (du Pisani, 2006; FAO, 2003; Menge, 2009). If well managed, wastewater can have positive impacts on the environment and health. All the same, waste water can also have adverse effects on the environment and can have negative effects on soil, ground water, surface water bodies, crops and animal health (Mara Cairncross, 1989). 2. 2. 1. 4. 2. 2. 1. 4. Waste Disposal The least prioritized strategy of waste management is waste disposal. In this method, waste is buried, deposited, discharged, dumped or released in places where they remain for the long-term. In many cases, urban solid or hazardous wastes are deposited or dumped in specially engineered landfills (DWAF, 1998). This method is used as a final step to dispose the waste that cannot be recycled or treated, together with the residue that comes from the