Differentiated Instruction Essay Example for Free

Differentiated Instruction Essay â€Å"What Is a Differentiated Classroom?† is the title of the first chapter of our course text. Below the title is a quote from Seymour Sarason’s â€Å"The Predictable Failure of Educational Reform.† The quote states: â€Å"A different way to learn is what the kids are calling for †¦.All of them are talking about how our one-size-fits-all delivery system – which mandates that everyone learn the same thing at the same time, no matter what their individual needs – has failed them. This is a powerful statement and one that admittedly paints an accurate picture of much of my teaching style coming into this course – â€Å"a one-size-fits-all delivery system. † My initial reaction to the opening statement was a bit defensive and off-putting. As I continued to read, I was momentarily validated when shortly afterwards I read that teacher’s often ask the question â€Å"How can I possibly divide time, resources and myself so that I am an effective catalyst for maximizing talent in all my students?† There are seemingly just too many needs and variables to reach the masses in a classroom. Teach to the middle seems to be a logical strategy. If we assume the 80-20 rule, we can reach 80% of the students fairly effectively with this methodology. Of the remaining 20 %, some portion of them should be able to glean part of the information. To be sure, I am available and encouraging of questions to assist in understanding. Additionally, I may grade an individual’s work with some reasonable variance. But other than some on-the-fly adjustments I may make to assignments as I see need that is the extent of my differentiation in t he classroom. SEEMS reasonable enough! Or should I say SEEMED reasonable enough!! The remainder of chapter one promptly provided a stern but inspirational slap-in-the-face. It offered a quick but stark contrast to my seemingly logical method of operation. A few of the â€Å"differentiation† concepts highlighted which served as motivation a prompted further reading: †¢Teachers begin where students are, not from the start of a curriculum guide †¢Teachers must be ready to engage students in instruction through different modalities, by appealing to differing interests, and by using varied rates of instruction along with varied degrees of complexity †¢Teachers provide specific ways for each individual to learn as deeply as possible and as quickly as possible, without assuming one student’s road map for learning is identical to anyone else’s. †¢Teachers begin with a clear and solid sense of what constitutes powerful curriculum and engaging instruction. Then they ask what it will take to modify that instruction so that each learner comes away with understandings and skills. †¢It is difficult to achieve a differentiated classroom because there are few examples of them. (Tomlinson, 1999) With these thoughts as an introduction and tapping into my drive for continual improvement the stage was set for the course. Moving forward, I see in retrospect, what chapter one did for peeking my interest in differentiated instruction I believe the rest of the book, the course workbook and the course itself did for laying the foundation towards true implementation. The following are four lesson plans I have developed to begin the process of differentiating lessons for my students. The differentiated concepts utilized are Entry Points, Problem Solving, Sternberg’s 3 Intelligences and Extension Menu’s. These lessons, while unique in their methodologies, all reflect the underlying assumption of Differentiated Instruction (DI). And that assumption, as reflected in a graphic organizer in our course workbook, is that †¦.Differentiation is a response to the learner’s needs using learning profiles, interests and readiness in content, process and product. The first lesson constructed utilizes Howard Gardner’s â€Å"Entry Points† strategy. This lesson is designed to account for the various learning profiles of student’s and is based off of Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences theory. The major tenet of MI theory is that people learn, represent, and utilize knowledge in many different ways. These differences challenge an educational system which assumes that everyone can learn the same materials in the same way and that a uniform, universal measure suffices to educate and test student learning. According  to Gardner, the broad spectrum of studentsand perhaps the society as a wholewould be better served if disciplines could be presented in a number of ways and learning could be accessed through a variety of means.† The Multiple Intelligences postulated in this theory are: †¢Linguistic Intelligence The capacity to use oral and/or written words effectively. †¢Logical-Mathematical Intelligence the ability to effectively use numbers and to reason. †¢Spatial Intelligence the capacity to accurately perceive the visual/spatial world and create internal mental images. †¢Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence the ability to skillfully move ones body and to move and manipulate objects. †¢Musical Intelligence a sensitivity to and grasp of the elements of music. †¢Interpersonal Intelligence the capacity to perceive and distinguish moods, intentions, and feelings of others. and using simulations to learn about events, feelings and alternative strategies for behaving. †¢Intrapersonal Intelligence the ability to know ones self and act on the basis of that knowledge. †¢Naturalistic intelligence – the ability to recognize and classify plants, animals, and minerals including a mastery of taxonomies. (The Theory of Multiple Intelligences) Stemming from the MI theory is Gardner’s â€Å"Entry Point† strategy for education. According to this strategy, Gardner proposes student exploration of a given topic through as many as five avenues: Narrational (presenting a story), Logical-Quantitative (using numbers or deduction), Foundational (examining philosophy and vocabulary), Aesthetic (focusing on sensory features), and Experiential (hands-on). (Grants and Research Office) In utilizing the Entry Point strategy in the first lesson plan, students will explore and be introduced to the world of â€Å"new products and services through invention, innovation and discovery† via four of the five entry points listed: Narrational, Logical-Quantitative, Foundational and Aesthetic. The fifth entry point, Experiential, is included in the unit lesson and will be used as a summative experience. The differentiated design of this lesson taps into the multiple learning styles of students through a variety of processes. Teaching Strategies Entry Point Strategies for subject â€Å"New Products†: †¢Narrative: Students browse the internet searching for new products which have recently been introduced to the consumer. Student’s compile a list of their findings as they progress. †¢Logical/Mathmatic: Students gather statistics regarding the sales of a product over the products life cycle. Student’s then incorporate that statistical data into a graph via excel †¢Aesthetic: Students create a collage of new products along with the demographic who would utilize the product †¢Foundational: Entrepreneurship: Students view three of a possible five video clips on the role of Inventors/Innovators/Entrepreneurs and their connection to new products. Discussion to follow †¢Experiential: Field Trip to QVC to view new products as they are being displayed, advertised and sold The second of the four differentiated lessons centers on the essential question of â€Å"What is the Six Step Developmental Process?† The differentiated strategy employed in this lesson is based on Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence. I looked forward to putting this lesson together as Sternberg’s theory is one that resonates with me. Coming from the business management world, and being new to the vocation of teaching, I find much of my class instruction project based with a real world â€Å"practical† slant.  Additionally, as a manager in business, one is constantly striving to place the correct people in the correct roles within a company. Hiring’s, training, evaluations, promotions, firings, relocations are all a product of a manager’s evaluation of employees strengths, talents, weaknesses and deficiencies. When evaluating and placing individual’s the criteria often looked at are an employee’s analytical, cre ative and practical skills. This theory strikes me as a perfect correlation between educational/intellectual theory and real world application. A brief summary of Dr. Sternbergs Triarchic Theory of (Successful) Intelligence contends that intelligent behavior arises from a balance between analytical, creative and practical abilities, and that these abilities function collectively to allow individuals to achieve success within particular contexts. Analytical abilities enable the individual to evaluate, analyze, compare and contrast information. Creative abilities generate invention, discovery, and other creative endeavors. Practical abilities tie everything together by allowing individuals to apply what they have learned in the appropriate setting. To be successful in life the individual must make the best use of his or her analytical, creative and practical strengths, while at the same time compensating for weaknesses in any of these areas. This might involve working on improving weak areas to become better adapted to the needs of a particular environment, or choosing to work in an environment that values the individuals particular strengths (Plucker). As applied to the classroom, it is important to provide students with the opportunity to learn based off of their natural and stronger intellectual ability(ies). Too often, education has tried to fit everyone into the â€Å"Analytical† mold. However, it is to be noted, t eachers should also strive to provide the opportunity for students to learn subject material via their weaker intellectual ability as well so as to simultaneously develop intellectual learning abilities as well as a base of knowledge in a particular subject matter. Teaching Strategies Sternberg Based Strategies for lesson â€Å"Developing New Products – The Six Step Process†: †¢Analytical †¢Identify the Six Step Developmental Process in developing a new product. †¢Choose and research one of the product options given and cite how that product progressed through each of the six step process †¢Write a one page summary on your thoughts of the effectiveness of the Six Step Process in the development of the product you chose. Would you have followed the same process or deviated at any point? State why or why not and if you would have deviated state how and why. †¢Creative †¢Identify the Six Step Developmental Process in developing a new product. †¢Describe a fictional product that you would like to see invented †¢Assume the role of an inventor and take your fictional product through the Six Step Developmental Process. Describe the considerations and possible decisions made at each step. †¢Create a model of your product via a picture or prototype †¢Practical †¢Identify the Six Step Developmental Process in developing a new product. †¢Describe a product you use and find valuable in everyday life †¢ Assume you were the inventor/innovator of the product you described, describe some of the considerations and decisions you believe were made at each step of the Six Step Developmental Process. †¢In a presentation, show and demonstrate the product you have chosen and describe some of the elements of the Six Step Developmental Process you believe were critical in its development. The third of the four lesson plans has as its content the â€Å"Marketing Mix.† The essential questions the students are to acquire answers to and achieve understanding for center around the â€Å"Distribution† component of the Marketing Mix. The DI teaching strategy to be utilized in this lesson is that of â€Å"Problem Based Learning.† As with Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Learning this particular strategy also resonates strongly with me. Again, coming from the business world, I see great value in a Problem Based Learning approach. It is very often how business gets done. Answers to problems must be contemplated, researched, solutions designed, implemented, evaluated †¦process repeated. Taking both DI approaches a step further, I see that merging Sternberg’s theory with Problem Based Learning (PBL) is a way of maximizing the PBL approach. A quick summarization of PBL: Problem-based learning (PBL) is an approach that challenges students to learn through engagement in a real problem. It is a format that simultaneously develops both problem solving strategies and disciplinary knowledge bases and skills by placing students in the active role of problem-solvers confronted with a situation that simulates the kind of problems they are likely to face as future managers in complex organizations. Problem-based learning is student-centered. PBL makes a fundamental shiftfrom a focus on teaching to a focus on learning. The process is aimed at using the power of authentic problem solving to engage students and enhance their learning and motivation. There are several unique aspects that define the PBL approach: †¢Learning takes place within the contexts of authentic tasks, issues, and problemsthat are aligned with real-world concerns. †¢In a PBL course, students and the instructor become co-learners, co-planners, co-producers, and co-evaluators as they design, implement, and continually refine their curricula. †¢The PBL approach is grounded in solid academic research on learning and on  the best practices that promote it. This approach stimulates students to take responsibility for their own learning, since there are few lectures, no structured sequence of assigned readings, and so on. †¢PBL is unique in that it fosters collaboration among students, stresses the development of problem solving skills within the context of professional practice, promotes effective reasoning and self-directed learning, and is aimed at increasing motivation for life-long learning. (Purser) Below is a diagram located from the University of California, Irvine website. I found it succinct and anticipate it to be very helpful as I move forward in the implementation of Problem Based Learning in my classroom. WHAT: HOW? WHY? Student-centered Experiential Select authentic assignments from the discipline, preferably those that would be relevant and meaningful to student interests. Students are also responsible for locating and evaluating various resources in the field. Relevance is one of the primary student motivators to be a more self-directed learner Inductive Introduce content through the process of problem solving, rather than problem solving after introduction to content. Research indicates that â€Å"deeper† learning takes place when information is introduced within a meaningful context. Builds on/challenges prior learning If the case has some relevance to students, then they are required to call on what they already know or think they know. By focusing on their prior learning, students can test assumptions, prior learning strategies, and facts. The literature suggests that learning takes placewhen there is a conflict between prior learning and new information. Context-specific Choose real or contrived cases and ground the count in the kinds of challenges faced by practitioners in the field. Again, context-specific  information tends to be learned at a deeper level and retained longer. Problems are complex and ambiguous, and require meta-cognition Select actual examples from the â€Å"real life† of the discipline that have no simple answers. Require students to analyze their own problem solving strategies. Requires the ability to use higher order thinking skills such as analysis, synthesis, evaluation, and creation of new knowledge. Creates cognitive conflict Select cases with information that makes simple solutions difficult: while the solution may address one part of a problem, it may create another problem. Challenges prior learning as noted above. The literature suggests that learning takes place when there is a conflict between prior learning and new information. Collaborative Interdependent Have students work in small groups in order to address the presented case By collaborating, students see other kinds of problem solving strategies used, they discuss the case using their collective information, and they need to take responsibility for their own learning, as well as their classmates’. (Gallow) †¢What are the four components of the â€Å"Marketing Mix† and which component deals with the delivery of a product to the consumer market? †¢What are the three methods of distribution†? †¢How does the method of distribution a company selects impact availability to the consumer? Teaching Strategies â€Å"Problem Based Learning† Strategy for lesson on the Marketing Mix component of â€Å"Distribution†: †¢Problem/Scenario: In pairs, â€Å"Marketing Partners† will determine the best methodology to â€Å"DISTRIBUTE† the product assigned to their â€Å"Marketing Firm.† †¢Problems to solve/Questions to answer: †¢What distribution channels does the competitor use? †¢Create in table form your competitors names, distribution channels and relative success of the competitor †¢What distribution options are viable for your company? †¢Create in table form a list of all possible distribution channels for your product as well as the benefits and drawbacks of each channel †¢In email form, compose a letter to your Director of Marketing defining the three levels of distribution intensity (Intensive, Exclusive and Selective) and indicate which level you recommend utilizing and explain why. †¢Based on the distribution intensity strategy you selected, create a data base (excel or word using tables) of at least 10 stores that may be a good fit to carry your product. Database should include the prospects: name, address, phone number, email and a short list of products carried. †¢Create a â€Å"Marketing Proposal Presentation† to deliver to your co-workers (class) which outlines your proposed distribution plan. The fourth lesson plan created and to be implemented as part of my new-and-improved DI Classroom of the future will utilize the strategy of Extension Menus. This lesson, as with the previous lesson, will have as its content the â€Å"Marketing Mix.† However, the focus and essential questions will center on the concept of â€Å"Promotion.† I see the significance and benefits of extension menus as many. Among the value points of extension menus is that they can be created to meet student needs using all three of the discussed vehicles: Learning Profiles, Interest and Readiness. In researching and then summarizing Extension Menus I have summarized the key elements in bullet form: Definition of Extension Menu An extension menu is an array of independent learning activities to provide students with choices for extending or enriching the essential curriculum. Purposes of Extension Menus †¢Enrich or extend the essential curriculum †¢Challenge the abilities of highly able students †¢Provide alternative activities that address the differing abilities, interests, or learning styles of students Advantages of Extension Menus †¢Can be written for any curriculum area †¢Provide rigorous and challenging learning activities for highly able students †¢May be tiered to accommodate all levels of instruction in the classroom †¢Can be used to target specific learning activities for an individual student or group of students †¢Allow student choice as well as challenge †¢Encourage the development of independent thinkers †¢Allow the teacher to monitor students’ choices and behaviors to learn more about their interests, abilities and learning styles †¢Promote student use of higher level thinking skills †¢ Promote flexible grouping in the classroom †¢Allow the teacher to be a facilitator Varied Uses of Extension Menus †¢Follow-up activity after a lesson †¢Culminating activity at the end of a unit †¢Anchoring activity (defined by Carol Ann Tomlinson as, â€Å"meaningful work done individually and silently especially when children first begin a class or when they finish assigned work †¢Learning center for enrichment and/or extension of the curriculum †¢Independent activity for students who have compacted out of specific curricular objectives or who have completed their work (Byrdseed, 2009-1012) Below is an Extension Menu I came across in my research. It will serve as a model moving forward. I thought it appropriate to include as an illustration of excellence. Tic-Tac-Toe Menu Collect Facts or ideas which are important to you. (Knowledge) Teach A lesson about your topic to our class. Include as least one visual aid. (Synthesis) Draw A diagram, map or picture of your topic. (Application) Judge Two different viewpoints about an issue. Explain your decision. (Evaluation) Photograph Videotape, or film part of your presentation. (Synthesis) Demonstrate Something to show what you have learned. (Application) Graph Some part of your study to show how many or how few. (Analysis) Create An original poem, dance, picture, song, or story. (Synthesis) Dramatize Something to show what you have learned. (Synthesis) Survey Others to learn their opinions about some fact, idea, or feature of your study. (Analysis) Forecast How your topic will change in the next 10 years. (Synthesis) Build A model or diorama to illustrate what you have learned. (Application) Create An original game using the facts you have learned. (Synthesis) Memorize And recite a quote or a short list of facts about your topic. (Knowledge) Write An editorial for the student newspaper or draw an editorial cartoon. (Evaluation) Compare Two things from your study. Look for ways they are alike and different. (Analysis) (schoolloop.com) For my first crack at Extension Menus I am offering a choice between three options. The projects assume a given level of â€Å"Readiness† as they are culminating exercises. â€Å"Interest† and â€Å"Learning Profiles† are tapped into as the choices offered are through the mediums of graphics (brochure), audio recordings (radio announcement-recorded or recited) or writings (public relations article). Additionally, the exercises also tap in Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory by meeting â€Å"Creative† and â€Å"Practical† components. †¢What are the four components of the â€Å"Marketing Mix† and which component deals with making the public aware of a business’ products or services? †¢What are the various methods of â€Å"Promotion†? †¢How do promotional activities influence consumers? Teaching Strategies Extension Menus for lesson on the Marketing Mix component of â€Å"Promotions†: Following unit lesson regarding the â€Å"Promotions† aspect of the Marketing Mix, students will be provided the opportunity to select one of three extension projects to demonstrate their knowledge of the subject. The basic nature of each assignment will vary to allow students the opportunity to select a methodology in which they are more inclined. The students will create either an artistic, written or verbal/kinesthetic product. †¢Extension Menu Project An entertainment group has just booked a three week engagement at your cities convention hall. Your marketing firm is one of two firms being considered to promote this event. You have been tasked to provide a sample marketing piece to win the job. Choose one of the following methodologies and create a â€Å"Promotional† piece for this event. Details of the event will be distributed. †¢Tri-fold Brochure: Using â€Å"Word† or a similar program, create a tri-fold brochure which pictures the entertainment groups major events and as well as various features of their business. †¢Public Relations Article: Using †Word,† create an article publicizing the coming of the entertainment group to your city and generate a â€Å"buzz† that will draw attendance to the various events. †¢Radio Announcement: Using a recording program, create a radio advertisement announcing the coming of the entertainment group to your city and highlight several of the main events. Also promote your station’s on-site appearance at one of the events. OR Write your radio announcements and perform them live for the class. As the saying goes †¦.†If you’re not moving forward – you’re moving backwards!† The challenge for us in this course, through classroom instruction, discussion, exercises, text readings and research, is to move forward in our instruction by way of transitioning from traditional methods of instruction to differentiated methods. I came into the course skeptical. I exit via this LEP project as encouraged and inspired. We talked about starting small and moving towards the greater goal. With these lesson plans and the tools acquired during class/research the foundation of a start have been laid. Works Cited (n.d.). Retrieved July Wednesday, 2012, from schoolloop.com: http://pps-pajaro-ca.schoolloop.com/file/1303568322190/1312697332954/8516106516570643153.pdf Byrdseed, I. (2009-1012). Byrdseed. Retrieved July Wednesday, 2012, from Offer Choice with Extension Menus: http://daretodifferentiate.wikispaces.com/file/view/Extension+Menu+directions+9.1.04.pdf Gallow, D. .. (n.d.). University of California, Irvine. Retrieved July Tuesday, 2012, from Problem-Based Learning Faculty Institute: http://www.pbl.uci.edu/whatispbl.html Grants and Research Office. (n.d.). Retrieved July Monday, 2012, from Applying Research to Practice:

Gender and Leadership Style

Gender and Leadership Style Introduction Leadership has had a great impact on the culture, history, and civilization of humankind, thus theoretical explanations for it have been extended throughout the history. Although the term leadership is mostly related with industry and business, it is important to education as well. Therefore it is vital to understand the role of leaders in education and to investigate the impact of gender on leadership style. Despite the large number of female teachers across all levels (i.e. primary, secondary, tertiary), leadership positions are still held mainly by men. Cooper et al. (2000) stated that qualified women educators provide important resource for meeting current and impending school leadership shortages but are often ignored. Meanwhile Young and McLeod (2001) identified that womens entrance into educational leadership will depends on their career aspirations, their leadership orientations or styles, the particular exposure to transformational leadership, their experiences, and the support they gain when entering administration. This section will include early leadership theories, the roles of school leader, relationship between leadership and gender, female leadership styles, differences between leadership styles of men and women, gender stereotypes, prejudice against female leaders and the summary of this chapter. Early Leadership Theories In the early 18th centuries, philosophers recommended a theory of leadership which was termed the Great Man theory. According to Jani (2008), this theory assumed that leaders are born and not made. Whereby leaders usually were members from the aristocracy since they only got a chance to lead; hence, it was considered that good breeding contributed to great leaders. Besides that, this theory also states that when there is a great need, then a great leader arises, like Buddha, Jesus, Churchill and Eisenhower. During that era, women were not taken into account as possible leaders. Even from the name given to this theory illustrates that women were not perceived as leaders, and leadership research during this period were related solely to males. Trait theories were introduced in the year 1904 and were well known up to 1947 (Bass, 1990). This theory assumed that people are born with inherited traits whereby some traits are particularly suited to leadership. It is believed that people who make good leaders have the right combination of traits. And once again, these traits were thought to be inborn, and unique to leaders. Trait theories basically described traits in masculine terms, and these characteristics were considered crucial for successful leadership. In the 1900s, small numbers of women began to enter the workforce. However, only very small proportions of women took up leadership positions in the 1940s. Typically, women were seen as carers, assistants, teachers, or nurses rather than leaders during this period of time (Koziara et al., 1987). Therefore, females were not seen as appropriate in the role of leadership. Soon after the 1940s, researchers began to propose that traits alone were not sufficient to explain effective leadership. They proposed that the interaction of leaders and followers, as well as other situational factors, may be a significant factor in effective leadership. At this stage, leaders were no longer considered to possess inborn characteristics and abilities hence Gardner (1989) proposed a new way of conceptualizing leadership. He said that men learn to lead therefore there is no one that are born to be a leader. This philosophy lead to the behavioural theories of leadership in the 1930s and the perspective began to move from a belief in the inborn characteristics of leaders, to a focus on behaviour which could be acquired or learned. There were four main behavioural studies conducted in conjunction with this theory. Firstly, the University of Iowa researchers which isolated three behavioural dimensions; these were the democratic, autocratic, and laissez-faire styles. Secondly, a study by Ohio State University in the 1940s and 1950s. They advanced this body of thought by dividing the behavioural theories into two dimensions which they termed consideration and initiating structure. Consideration was explained as being considerate towards followers ideas and feelings while initiating structure referred to structuring work relationship to meet job goals. The third study was conducted by the University of Michigan which described employee oriented and production oriented dimensions. The findings of this study concluded that employee-oriented employers promoted high group productivity and job satisfaction amongst their employees (Kahn and Katz, 1960). These concepts were extended in 1964, when Blake and Mouton proposed a Managerial Grid. They proposed that by incorporating the two dimensions of concern for people and concern for production the most effective way of leading could be achieved (Blake and Mouton, 1964). All these behavioural theories were proposed in the early 1930s, but only achieved prominence in the 1960s at a time when the number of women in positions of power or authority in organisations were still low. The proportion of women in leadership roles in the USA in 1970, ten years after the behavioural theories were introduced, was only 16 per cent. Moreover, this percentage of women involved in a leadership role was reported to be constant for over a decade (Powell, 1999). However, during this period of research, there was an emerging recognition of the importance of concern for people in the behavioural theories as being an effective leadership quality. A concern for people could be seen as behaviour more typically associated with female. Subsequently, the leadership theories moved on to embrace both individual traits and situational aspects of leadership simultaneously (Bass, 1990). Successful leadership was considered to be dependent on the leaders consideration of situational factors in order for an appropriate leadership style to be chosen to cope with each situation. This theory assumes that the action of a leader depends on a number of situational factors, such as motivation and capability of followers, relationship between the leader and the followers, stress, mood, and etc. Yukl (1989) has identified six situational factors namely, subordinate effort, subordinate ability, organization of the work, cooperation and cohesiveness, resources and support, and external coordination. Situational theories would have predominantly been seen as applying to males in leadership roles because of the low profile of women in management during that time, and it can be assumed that the profile of women in management would not h ave been advanced in any significant way from this body of literature. Additional theories began to be available with mostly focused on the specific leadership styles of leaders, in an attempt to increase the understanding of what constituted effective leadership. These concepts relating to leadership styles were introduced in 1938 by Lewin and Lippitt. They suggested that leaders vary in the way they led in organisations. They proposed three styles of leadership. Firstly, autocratic leaders were originally described as leaders who used their power and their ability to persuade in leading their followers. An autocratic leader was also illustrated as a directive leader. The autocratic style of leadership was not been associated with female gender stereotypical characteristics. The second leadership style was named democratic leadership. This style was explained as a style whereby the leader pursued an open and follower oriented relationship. Leaders who take on this style encouraged followers to establish their own strategies, provided them with a perspective by explaining in advance the procedures for accomplishing the goals, and granted the followers independence to commence their own tasks and congratulating them if they succeed. According to Bass (1990), this leadership style originated from America, and leaders adopting this style were described as caring, considerate, and easy to compromise. This is the first kind of research which was seen to be more favourably aligned to feminine characteristics as compared to masculine characteristics. However, as mentioned previously, during the era when leadership style theories reached prominence, there were still limited women holding leadership positions. As research on gender difference in leadership styles did not occur until 1990, it would appear that the theories on leadership styles would have been written to illustrate male behaviour in leadership roles. Nevertheless, it could be argued that the theories on leadership styles began to raise the profile of women in leadership. This early leadership research may have changed insights about the suitability of women in leadership positions, as a democratic style of leadership could be attributed to both male and female leaders. The third leadership style was described as laissez-faire leadership. The term laissez-faire means to let others act without interference or better known as the hands off style. Laissez-faire leaders were thought to have less confidence in their decision-making responsibility, or in their capability to manage, often avoiding meeting with their subordinates (Bass, 1990). Similar to previous theories, these researches was studied in a male context, probably because of the small numbers of women in leadership roles at that time. In short, all of the theories reviewed portrayed leadership implicitly or explicitly as a male prerogative, and the small numbers of women in leadership positions during the respective periods confirms that the role of leaders was largely seen as a male domain. Not unpredictably, all the researchers and writers on early leadership were men and hence the years of leadership research reflect a male dominance. Denmark (1993), reflected that by ignoring gender as a variable in studying leadership, researchers created many blanks in theoretical and research design. However, gender has begun to be a consideration in the literature in the late 1970s. Gender difference research began to report on differences in behaviour, attitudes, and skills between males and females in general and was subsequently extended to consider abilities such as leadership. The Roles of School Leaders The role of the school leader in successful schools has gone beyond the traditional view of functional management, power, behaviour style, and instructional leadership. In the past, the job of school leader was considered as primarily managerial, however nowadays the realities of our global society have shifted the focus from management to leadership. According to Kowalski, (2003) an effective school administrator typically must be both a manager and a leader. Todays school leaders face more complex expectations. They face a very different student population. At a time when many view the schools as one of the few social organizations, students arrive with very different attitudes, motivations, and needs than students of todays generations (Young and Kochan, 2004). International research indicates that successful schools have leaders who creates a productive and professional school culture (Stoll, 1999), have a clear vision (Fullan, 2003), are knowledgeable about teaching and learning (Wesson and Grady, 1993) and protect schools from demands that make it difficult for schools to operate on a professional basis (Normore, 2004). As for school leaders in less successful schools, they seem to view their role to be more that of a middle manager. While leaders in highly successful schools perceive themselves as educational leaders (Normore, 2004) who contribute to school improvement and school effectiveness (Mortimore and MacBeath, 2001). Effective school leaders are vital to change and improvement, and are clear on expectations for student learning (Fullan, 2003). Expectations of nowadays school leaders include new knowledge and skill for instructional leadership, discipline, supervision, fundraising, and public relations expertise (Shuttleworth, 2003). More responsibility has been added to the job over the years causing some of the best school leaders to slow down until the extent that they have lost much of their leadership, rather than management quality (Normore, 2004; Shuttleworth, 2003; Simkins, 2003). Relationship between Leadership and Gender According to Oshagbemi and Gill (2003), the relationship between gender role and leadership style is the association of masculinity with task-oriented leadership styles and femininity with relationship-oriented styles. This relationship is not so precise for women. Jamieson developed the concept of femininity and masculinity in the year 1995 where behaving feminine is associated with incompetence and behaving masculine is associated with competency. If the masculine model represents the general and dominant model of leadership, women understand that in order to escalate the ranks they have to conform to it (Fernandes and Cabral-Cardoso, 2003). In other words, the same influence strategies that proved to be successful for men are continually used by women too. The main strategy is to develop behaviors feminine enough not to diverge from the gender role expectation, but masculine enough to gain credibility as professionals; in simple terms, women have to create their own leadership sty les. As Gardner (1995) said Leadership is never guaranteed; it must always be renewed. Female Leadership Styles Earlier thinking emphasized that women who had reached leadership positions were imitators of male characteristics, but contemporary theories recognize feminine leadership styles. Like any new trend in traditional settings, it takes years to develop new styles until these styles are understood and well accepted. Women face several barriers that prevent them from involving in leadership positions. Obstacles with this origin have been described as the glass ceiling as a metaphor that halts women in moving up the career ladder at a certain point (Oakley, 2000). Nonetheless, the increasing involvement of women in the labor market in the last half century, and their movement to managerial positions has changed the definition of leadership (Kark, 2004). Rosener (1990) believed that female leadership tends towards a style defined as interactive leadership that involves: encouraging participation; sharing power and information; enhancing self-worth; changing self interests for an overall good; relating power to interpersonal skills; and believing in better performance when feeling good. Women leaders in education need to find the leadership styles that, without denying its feminine origins, result in efficiency. The redefinition of characteristics of an effective school leader, following the current trends of organizational leadership, will help erase gender stereotypes and focus on desirable characteristics that candidates (men or women) bring to the position (Logan, 1998). Differences in the Leadership Styles of Men and Women One possible explanation of gender gap in leadership is that women are deficient in the characteristics and behaviors that are crucial to effective leadership. However, contrary to the idea that women are less suited to leadership than men, Eagly, Alice H., and Marloes L. van Engen (2004) have described female leaders as having cooperative, interactive, and facilitative leadership styles that are more attuned to the needs of modern organizations than the leadership styles that of men. Empirical research has observed such claims about the typical leadership styles of men and women. To determine whether men and women differ in leadership styles, Alice Eagly and Blair Johnson (2004) carried out a meta-analysis of 162 studies that were conducted between 1961 and 1987. Most of these studies distinguished between task-oriented leadership (a style that emphasizes subordinates to follow rules and procedures, maintaining high standards of performance, and making roles explicit) and interpersonally oriented leadership (a style that emphasizes helping subordinates, looking out for their welfare, explaining procedures, and being friendly and available). Besides that, some studies distinguished between leaders who behave democratically and invite subordinates to participate in decision making, known as participative or democratic leadership, and leaders who behave autocratically and discourage subordinates from participating in decision making, known directive or autocratic le adership. Eagly and Johnsons meta-analysis found that the leadership styles of women and men were somewhat stereotypical. In these laboratory and assessment studies, women, more than men, tended to manifest relatively towards interpersonally oriented styles, and men, more than women, tended to display relatively task-oriented styles. In contrast, gender differences in task and interpersonal style were insignificant among leaders occupying managerial roles in organizations. These findings were consistent with the principle that gender differences are lower among managers because male and female managers are selected by similar criteria and subjected to similar organizational socialization. However, in all these studies, one difference did consistently appear: Women leaders displayed a somewhat more democratic or participative style and a less autocratic or directive style than men did. In the twenty-three studies comparing men and women on the democratic versus autocratic dimension, 92 percent went in the direction of a more democratic and participative style among women. In the 1980s and 1990s, researchers identified a type of leadership style that is commonly known as transformational leadership, which is similar to contemporary models of leadership known as visionary, charismatic, and inspirational. The importance of these models is on the ability of the leaders to inspire, stimulate, and motivate followers and to nurture their ability to contribute creatively to the organizational goals. Transformational leadership are differ from transactional leadership, which is a more conventional style that stresses clarifying subordinate responsibilities and using rewards and punishments to encourage subordinates to meet objectives of the organization. Also acknowledged by some researchers is laissez-faire style that is characterized by a general failure to take responsibility for managing or better known as the hands off style. To determine whether male and female leaders differ when evaluated in terms of these new distinctions, Eagly, along with social psychologists Mary Johannesen-Schmidt and Marloes van Engen, carried out a meta-analysis of 45 studies that compared male and female managers on the measures of transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership. These studies involved organizational leaders, mainly from business and educational organizations. The meta-analysis revealed that female leaders were more transformational than male leaders and also exceeded male leaders on one component of transactional leadership which is contingent reward behaviors, which consist of rewarding subordinates for doing a good job. Women also exceeded men on the transformational dimension of individualized consideration, which relates to developing and mentoring followers. In contrast, men were more likely than women to display two other aspects of transactional leadership which are active management by ex ception and passive management by exception. Active management by exception refers to attending to followers mistakes and failures to meet standards, while passive management by exception refer to waiting until problems become severe before attending to them. Men, more than women, also displayed laissez-faire leadership, which means they are uninvolved during critical moment. In summary, research has established some small differences in the behavior of male and female leaders. Specifically, women tend to be more democratic and less autocratic than men, a difference that does not yield an overall advantage for either gender. More important for effectiveness are womens tendencies to engage in transformational style and to deliver more rewards for followers good performance. These behaviors have been related with enhanced effectiveness across a wide variety of settings. Consequently, empirical research does not support the thought that the leadership styles of women account for their lesser success in rising into higher-level of leadership positions. Gender Stereotypes Women have traditionally been stereotyped as more socially sensitive and interpersonally competent than men (Korabik 1999). In various studies, the traditional stereotype of women included attributes such as being less competent and less effective in tasks that are required for work outside of home (Glick and Fiske 1999), nurturing, compassionate, considerate, weak, and subservient (Bem 1974), and emotional, subjective, tactful, aware of others feelings, and having feelings that are easily hurt (Broverman, Vogel, Broverman, Clarkson, and Rosenkrantz 1972). Stereotypes linked with men, on the other hand, typically included traits such as leaders, dominant, aggressive, independent, objective, and competitive (Broverman, Vogel, Broverman, Clarkson, and Rosenkrantz 1972). These gender stereotypes broaden into almost every facet of daily life for both men and women. People interpret communications and speech characteristics through gender stereotypes (Tannen 1990, 2001). Research has also demonstrated that gender stereotypes regarding communication patterns and styles develop early and continue on through adulthood. Other aspects of interpersonal interactions are subjected to gender stereotypes as well. Eagly and Karau (1991) demonstrated that overall, men were perceived as being more capable and were more readily accepted as leaders when they acted in a confident and assertive manner. Although the nature of the task moderated this relationship, men were more likely than women to be thought of as leaders (Eagly and Karau 1991). For women, the same qualifications of assertiveness and confidence could be harmful when they are faced with traditional gender stereotypes. Carli and Eagly (1999) in their summary of the research on influence and leadership emergence highlighted the barriers that faces by women in leadership. Studies conducted in the United States have demonstrated that self-efficacy and self-promotion are beneficial in hiring and promotion practices for men. However, women who engaged in these behaviors as undesirable (Rudman 1998). Therefore, gender stereotypes play a critical role in limiting the opportunities for women to emerge as leaders by decreasing womens access to leadership roles and increasing the obstacles they must overcome in order to become leaders (Eagly and Karau 2002). When women and men leaders behaviors and styles are reviewed, typically one of these paradigms is employed. Eagly and Johnsons (1990) meta-analysis research demonstrated that across studies, no difference was found in the perception of men and women leaders. However, they did report a small but significant finding in which women leaders were perceived as being more participative as compare to their men counterparts. They also highlighted that the source of the perception (self or subordinates) may play an important role on the results. In addition, factors such as the gender of the author, the type of study, and the date of the study had some moderating effects on the results. More recently, Eagly and colleagues have reported meta-analytic results regarding the role of leaders gender in transactional and transformational leadership styles (Eagly, Johannesen-Schimdt, van Engen, and Vinkenburg 2003). These studies found that women leaders, when compared to the males, were perceived as slightly but significantly more likely to engage in transformational behaviors. They also found that men leaders, when compared to the women leaders, were perceived as more transactional leaders. Therefore, it could be concluded that men and women are perceived somewhat differently due to the presence of traditional gender stereotypes. Prejudices against Female Leaders Prejudice against women as leaders is at least partly responsible for the lack of women in leadership positions. Prejudice arises because peoples common views about what a manager or a leader is like do not fit their ideas about women as well as they fit their ideas about men. This inconsistency can be examined in terms of social roles of women, men, and leaders. These role expectations are called descriptive because they indicate what behaviors members of a particular social category might display. Role expectations are also called injunctive because they include consensual expectations about what group members ideally should do. Gender roles are understood as socially shared beliefs about the typical attributes of women and men. According to social role theory, these roles emerge from the societal division of labor between the genders. The underlying principle is that the perceivers infer that peoples actions tend to correspond to their internal dispositions, a cognitive process that has been labeled correspondent inference or correspondence bias. Specifically, the common, nurturing behaviors required by womens domestic and child-care roles and by many female-dominated occupational roles favor inferences that women do possess and should possess common traits. Similarly, the confident, task-oriented activities required by many male-dominated occupations and the breadwinner family role create expectations that men do possess and should possess agentic traits, such as unselfishness, concern for others, and expressiveness, as well as traits such as masterfulness, self-assuredness, and instrumental competency. In general, prejudice in the workplace may arise from the irregularity people perceive between particular workplace roles and the attributes attributed to individuals based on their group membership. Most leadership roles are characterized primarily by agentic attributes and are therefore different with the predominantly common characteristics attributed to women. Although it might seem that gender should be irrelevant in the workplace, it spills over to affect opinions of employees. The resulting incongruity of the female gender role and leadership roles leads not only to decreased prospect that women can be successful leaders, but also to less favorable evaluations of leadership when it is enacted by a woman compared with a man, as shown in many studies that were summarized by Eagly and social psychologist Steven Karau in 2002. Several types of research have shown that women have fewer accesses to leadership roles than men do. Economist Joyce Jacobsens review showed that most studies of actual income and promotion supported the claim of discrimination against women in general and female managers in particular, albeit on a decreasing basis over the years. As shown in a meta-analysis by psychologists Heather Davison and Michael Burke, experiments in which participants evaluated female and male job candidates who were experimentally equated supported the narrower claim of prejudice as a disadvantage for women in relation to male gendertyped positions, which would include most leadership roles. Other studies, such as those by sociologist Martha Foschi, showed that women usually have to meet higher standard to be judged as being competent and possessing leadership ability. In addition, Eagly and Karaus 1991 meta-analysis demonstrated that it is usually less likely that women emerge as leaders in groups, especial ly if the groups task is not particularly demanding of interpersonal skill or is otherwise relatively masculine. Research also has proved the prediction that women have more obstacles to overcome in becoming successful in leadership roles. Specifically, as demonstrated in a meta-analysis by Alice Eagly, Steven Karau, and social psychologist Mona Makhijani, studies of leaders effectiveness, it demonstrated that leaders performed less effectively when the leader role that they occupied was incongruent with their gender role. Women suffered diminished outcomes in roles given especially with masculine definitions, and men suffered somewhat diminished outcomes in roles given with more feminine definitions. As shown in a meta-analysis by Alice Eagly, Mona Makhijani, and social psychologist Bruce Klonsky, more definitive support emerged in an experimental research paradigm that removed possible differences in the leadership behavior of women and men by comparing this behavior. More ultimate support emerged in an experimental research framework that removed possible differences in the leadership behavi or of women and men by equating this behavior. In these studies women fared slightly less well than men did. More important, just as in studies on leaders effectiveness, women fared less well than men did when leader roles were male dominated and when men served as evaluators. In synopsis, pressures to female leaders come from two directions: Conforming closely to their gender role would produce a failure to meet the requirements of their leader role, and conforming closely to their leader role would produce a failure to meet the requirements of their gender role. The latter pressure can result in the prejudicial outcome of receiving lesser rewards for appropriate leader behavior than an equivalent man would receive. In this sense, female leaders face more challenges not encountered by male leaders, especially in leadership roles that are defined in relatively masculine terms. Chapter Summary In conclusion, the outlook for womens involvement in leadership in the twenty-first century is promising as more women enter leadership roles in industrialized nations and thereby reduce the difference between peoples beliefs about women and about leaders. Furthermore, organizations gain from giving women equal access to leader roles, not only because evidence shows that women are at least as effective as men, but also because gender equality increases the pool of potential candidates from which leaders are chosen.

Software Patent and Copyright Laws in India :: Technology Computers Essays

Software Patent and Copyright Laws in India This Midterm Paper investigates the Intellectual Property Rights (IPR), primarily Copyrights and Patents in India. The Paper performs a Legal as well as Ethical Analysis of the Indian IPR Laws. It recommends improvements; especially regarding Global Issues related to Software Patents and IPR over the Net by substantiating evidence from the Embassy of India Policy Statements and from a reputed magazine in India, called India Today. The author fully acknowledges citations from all the references. Intellectual Property Rights in India There is a well-established statutory, administrative and judicial framework to safeguard intellectual property rights in India, whether they relate to patents, trademarks, copyright or industrial designs. Well-known international trademarks have been protected in India even when they were not registered in India. The Indian Trademarks Law has been extended through court decisions to service marks in addition to trademarks for goods. Computer software companies have successfully curtailed piracy through court orders. Computer databases have been protected. The courts, under the doctrine of breach of confidentiality, accorded an extensive protection of trade secrets. Right to privacy, which is not protected even in some developed countries, has been recognized in India. [1] Protection of intellectual property rights in India continues to be strengthened further. The year 1999 witnessed the consideration and passage of major legislation with regard to protection of intellectual property rights in harmony with international practices and in compliance with India's obligations under TRIPS. As regards the aspect enforcement, Indian enforcement agencies are now working very effectively and there has been a notable decline in the levels of piracy in India. In addition to intensifying raids against copyright infringers, the Government has taken a number of measures to strengthen the enforcement of copyright law. Special cells for copyright enforcement have been set up in 23 States and Union Territories. In addition, for collective administration of copyright, copyright societies have been set up for different classes of works. Copyright Protection in India India has one of the most modern copyright protection laws in the world. Major development in the area of copyright during 1999 was the amendment to the Copyright Act of 1957 to make it fully compatible with the provisions of the TRIPS Agreement. Called the Copyright (Amendment) Act, 1999, this amendment was signed by the President of India on December 30, 1999 and came into force on January 15, 2000. The earlier 1994 amendment to the Copyright Act of 1957 had provided protection to all original literary, dramatic, musical and artistic works, cinematography, films and sound recordings.

A Class Called Peer Listening :: Personal Narrative Education Essays

A Class Called Peer Listening Walking into a class called "Peer Listening" can certainly give a high school student a unique impression. It was my senior year of high school and all I wanted to do was take easy classes to finish off the year, and that's all I had heard about this class, no homework, it's easy, a "blow off class", so naturally it seemed to be the perfect class. Mr. Bihl I had known for a year and I found him to be a genuinely interesting, understanding person. I walked in the classroom and took the nearest seat to the window side of the room and waited to see who else was in my class. Bill walked in the door, he was a hockey player, jock and all around high achiever. Then came Lauren who was in the same "crowd" as Bill, but with those who liked to live a little more dangerously. Many of them have been into drugs in the past. Next Michelle, who I have heard a lot of rumors about, she is only sixteen and living with her boyfriend in their own apartment. After a minute or two, another kid named Bill strode through the door, he was an all around guy, he could fit into a group of people and manage to entertain them. Just as the bell rang, a girl named Nicole sat in the seat next to me. No one liked Nicole and I never really understood why. There were others that had come in, but most I didn't know. Once the bell had rung and I knew that none of my good friends were going to be in the class, the wave of dread washed over me. A whole semester of people I hardly knew. What a way to spend my senior year of high school! Once the class had started, there were only seventeen people. It was a very small class, compared to the rest of my classes, which topped thirty students. The classroom itself was located just inside the main hall leading to the entrance of the school. Room number 205. Inside, the classroom looked just like every other classroom in Clarkston High School, gray industrial carpeting speckled with burgundy, forest green, and an array of other colors. The walls were cinderblocks painted a hideous shade of off white, and lacked decorations. A gray Formica counter top lined one side of the classroom, complete with cabinets above and below.

The Use of Hesse Siddhartha to Reflect the Legendary Atmosphere of Budd

The Use of Hesse Siddhartha to Reflect the Legendary Atmosphere of Buddha "Siddhartha" is one of the names of the historical Gautama, and the life of Hesse's character resembles that of his historical counterpart to some extent. Siddhartha is by no means a fictional life of Buddha, but it does contain numerous references to Buddha’s philosophies and his teachings. Although Hesse’s Siddhartha is not intended to portray the life of Gautama the Buddha but he used the name and many other attributed to reflect the legendary atmosphere and the pattern of his heroes transformation. Shakyamuni, known in his youth as Siddhartha Gautama, was a prince who became aware of and profoundly troubled by the problems of human suffering. According to religious scriptures Siddhartha renounced his prince hood at the age of 19 and pursued the life of a religious mendicant from which he rejected both extremes of the mortification of the flesh and of hedonism as paths toward the state of Nirvana. After 11 years of ascetic practices and deep meditation, at the age of 30, he finally realized the truth that would emancipate mankind from their suffering, and he became a Buddha. All the teachings of Shakyamuni were recorded giving rise to a vast array of sutras or scriptures. The Buddha can in no way be described as a transcendental or supreme being. â€Å"Buddha† means the enlightened one; a Buddha is a person who perceives within his own life the essence, or reality of life itself. Unlike other religious philosophies or systems of religious thought, Buddhism makes no clear distinction between divinity and humanity. Its teachings enable people to attain enlightenment, to become Buddhas themselves. This ultimate reality supports and nourishes humanity, and all other living beings. Those who have perceived this ultimate reality inherent in their own lives truly know themselves, they are Buddhas. (Introduction to Buddhism) The basic teaching of Buddha is formulated in the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. Preceding from the premise that suffering exists and that a release from it must be found, Buddha constructed his system. The First Noble Truth is to be understood, the universality of suffering. The Second Truth is to be abandoned, the desire to have and control things that cause suffering. The third truth is to be made visible, the supreme truth and final liberation of Nirvana... ...is world. He realizes that this had to come, so that he would no longer fight what he considered fate, but gave himself unreservedly to his destiny, thus Siddhartha has overcome suffering at last, and with it has attained the last step of his contemplation. He has entered Nirvana, peace has finally come to Siddhartha at last. When it is asked of Siddhartha to show the wonders of enlightenment his efforts to express that he has found the way in words are doomed, since the way within for one individual defies formulation for another, for simply expressed â€Å"knowledge can be imparted, but not wisdom†. (Field) Field, George W Herman Hesse Boston: Twayne Pub., 1970 â€Å"Introduction To Buddhism† SGI-USA www.sgi-usa/buddhism/introtobuddhism.html Malthaner, Johannes. World Literature Criticism James P Draper, ed. Vol. 3. Detroit: Gale Research Comp., 1992. Otten, Anna. Hesse Companion. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1977. Robinson, B.A. â€Å"Buddhism† Religious Tolerance www.religoustolerance.org/buddhism.htm (5 Mar 2001) Rose, Enrst. â€Å"Faith From the Abyss† Contemporary Literature Criticism. Riley, Carolyn. Vol. #1. Detroit: Gale Research Comp. 1973, 145.

Organisational Strategy at Flybe Essay

Introduction For the purposes of this report I have chosen Flybe as my main focus of discussion in the UK and European airline industry. Flybe is Europe’s largest regional airline with 162 routes, operating from a total of 53 departure points. In this report I will analyse why it has made sense for Flybe to build on their strengths of being a regional operator and how they have managed to find a niche in the crowded airline marketplace. I will also discuss their strategy for future growth and how they have chosen their battleground carefully. I will discuss in detail how Flybe is attempting to fulfil its mission statements of â€Å"Low Cost, But not at any cost† and â€Å"To give you safe, efficient and friendly service†(Flybe, 2008). Eye For Travel (2008) reports that Flybe’s financial reports for the year-ending 31 March 2008 show 46% increase in turnover to  £535.9m. There was also a profit before tax of  £53.4m. Flybe’s competitors such as EasyJet, Ryaniar and BMI Baby have not had such positive figures in these tough economic conditions. I have included in this report the capability analysis of Flybe, the stakeholders analysis and how Flybe can utilise its resources to gain competitive advantage. Relevant appendices and a bibliography are included at the end of the report. STRATEGIC CAPABILITY ANALYSIS FOR FLYBE Effectiveness of strategies used 2002-2008 The period 2002-2008 was significant for Flybe. It coincided with a major shift in strategy in response to market conditions. Flybe adopted the LCC business strategy in 2002 (Done, 2003). The author’s aim is to identify the strategies using the Bowman’s Strategy Clock (1995). Evaluation of strategies will be done using the TOWS matrix (see Appendix 1 for Flybe’s strengths and weaknesses). Low Cost No Frills Strategy The adoption of the LCC business model by Flybe as a strategy can arguably be described as the positioning approach. This strategy could not have been planned but was rather an emergent one following the downturn in profits  exacerbated by September the 11th event. A closer analysis of the Bowman’s Strategy Clock reveals that Flybe’s initial strategy was that of low price. According to Done (2003), Flybe’s restructuring process was geared towards competing with the established no-frills airlines. Competition with Ryanair and Easyjet was therefore inevitable, but was this strategy sustainable? How effective was this strategy? According to Grant (2005), to compete effectively with a low cost strategy a company should be having economies of scale, experience curve and a lead on the market. Datamonitor (2007), notes that Flybe has had a lot of experience in the aviation business. It enjoyed economies of scale in its operations. It had a lot of experience in the airline industry. What it did not have was the large market share when it decided to adopt the LCC model of operation. Upon further analysis one can safely argue that this was a major risk that Flybe took by entering into this short haul business. A TOWS matrix analysis of Flybe (Appendix 1) suggests that Flybe adopted an effective strategy because it had strengths like economies of scale, dedicated staff, capital and resources to explore the expanding low cost business. Flybe only needed to offer a competitive product similar to its competitors. As a potential entrant into the business, there was no deterrence from the established airlines to stop Fl ybe from entering the market. On that basis, Flybe can be said to have used an effective strategy. It is also important to look at the strategies that sustained Flybe once it entered the market. Flybe’s Business Strategies Rapid expansion Restructuring of Flybe was associated with the rapid expansion programme. Flybe chairman, Jim French, announced the completion of its five year plan of rapid expansion programme (Annual report of 2007). There was an increase in the number of aircraft, network and profits for the corporation for the period 2002-2007. Rapid expansion was mainly achieved by the acquisition of BA Connect, a subsidiary of British Airways. The acquisition made Flybe one of the largest European LCC (Done, 2007, Annual Report, 2007). This fitted  well with his strategy of competition with its established airlines. However, acquisitions carry their own risks such as human relations problems (that can arise after the acquisition), not easy to dispose of unwanted parts of the company, problems of clash of national cultures particularly where target if foreign and high risks if a wrong company is targeted (Lynch, 2003). Re-branding Flybe has been reframed into a recognisable product on the market. The Flybe brand has continued to grow with passenger volumes up from 4.7million to 7million in 2006 and 2007 respectively (Done, 2007). The forecast for year 2008 was predicted to an annual turnover in excess of  £500 million and passenger volumes of 10 million (Done, 2007). It is debatable that Flybe’s initial plan was to establish itself on the market as phase one of the programme. Against a background of heavy losses, Jim French took a risk that paid off by sustaining Flybe into existence considering the intensity of competition on the market against established brands like Ryanair and Easyjet. Sustaining Flybe on the market would have been the second phase. Flybe adopted a strictly no-frills strategy between 2002 and 2006. However, a shift in strategy has been noted from 2006 onwards. This strategy is that of differentiation. The Differentiation Strategy Examining Bowman’s Strategic Clock (Appendix 2), Flybe has now shifted its strategy to differentiation without a price premium. Its major competitors have continued with the no-frills approach, while Flybe has commenced on product differentiation. Datamonitor (2007) noted that product differentiation for Flybe is in frequent flier programmes, on board deli, business express travel and corporate users. As highlighted in the 2007 Annual Report Flybe became the first LCC to charge baggage handling. However, its competitors have copied this and are doing the same. The advantages of differentiation as highlighted in research and literature include creating value for the customer, gaining a market share and enticing customer loyalty to the offered product (Grant, 2005). Judging by Flybe’s  results in terms of profitability and growth in passenger figures it appears as if differentiation strategy is working. On the other hand, it should be noted that Debonair came unstuck wh en it employed this strategy. Parnell (2006) has reiterated Porters argument that a company needs to have either a Low Cost Strategy or Differentiation Strategy combined with a focus strategy. If this does not happen then businesses risk their potential to maximise on performance. Flybe at present appears to be pursuing both strategies of Low Cost and Differentiation. Other authorities have argued for the co-joined approach suggesting the importance of customer perception in terms of price and value (Bowman and Faulkner, 1997). The author argues that Flybe might be leading ahead of its competitors. When Michael Oleary, Chief Executive Officer of Ryanair, was asked about what his next challenge was he suggested differentiation strategy (Done, 2007). Whilst Flybe has got competitive advantage at present in respect of differentiation, other competitors have already started thinking about it because it is easy to copy. Jim French can be said to have used an effective strategy again. As shown in Appendix 1(TOWS matrix for Flybe in 2008), Flybe has used its strengths of fleet efficiency and competitive routes to take advantage of the growing and expanding LCC market. It has also used product differentiation and customer loyalty to exploit a large share on the growing market. By purchasing environmentally friendly aircraft, Flybe has managed to counter threat of global warming concerns. Product differentiation has been used to insulate Flybe from the competitive environment where Ryanair and Easyjet have a large stake. STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS FOR FLYBE Stakeholder pressures Stakeholder pressures played a significant role in terms of strategies that have been chosen by Flybe. The main stakeholders include shareholders, employees, customers, governments, suppliers, environmental pressure groups, unions, foreign governments, media, airports, local governments, directors, financial institutions and competitors. . The stakeholder pressure shall be examined using a power-interest matrix (Appendix 3). As power and interest moves towards high power and high interest segment, it is indicative of an increased level of stakeholder pressure. Appendix 3 represents three periods when Flybe decided to change its business model in 2002, a period of stability between 2002 and 2006 and finally when it started showing interest in the acquisition of BA Connect in 2006. Meeting the expectations and demands of all stakeholders has been described as almost impossible within literature (George, 2003). Pre-2002 period Flybe’s management was under considerable pressure from its main economic stakeholders. The company had gone for nearly three years without making any profits and with limited growth (Done, 2003). Pressure was mounting mainly from its shareholders for results in terms of profits. Tudway and Pascal (2006) pointed out that a shareholder’s perspective regarding responsibilities of directors as that of increasing shareholder value. Appendix 3 shows that there was a lot of pressure from financial institutions, creditors and share holding employees in the high interest- high power segment. Media had also started showing interest in what was happening at Flybe. Flybe’s competitors and suppliers were eager to find out what was happening in Flybe hence indicated in the low power- high interest segment. The resultant effect in terms of strategy was a change in management. Jim French was appointed the managing director and there was a change in the direction of the company. A positioning approach was adopted. Flybe announced its decision to establish itself as a LCC. The company was re-branded into Flybe. In that respect, stakeholder pressure was significant in influencing Flybe’s strategies. Between 2004 and 2006 there was a different kind of pressure as shown in appendix 3-1. There was a low interest from suppliers, media and the government with low power as well. There was high interest but with low power from competitors, unions, employees, pressure groups, creditors and financial institutions. Meanwhile Flybe had embarked on its strategy of rapid expansion. Heavy losses at BA Connect precipitated the move by Flybe  for a possible acquisition in 2006. The ultimate strategy was therefore fulfilled but the power-interest matrix also started showing a different picture before the acquisition (appendix 3-2). The government as a regulatory body had to come in with high interest and high power. Easyjet’s interest in BA Connect was blocked by the government paving the way for Flybe as the main competitor for the acquisition (Done, 2006). Media and environmental pressure groups also started getting involved towards the high interest and high power segment. Interests from secondary airports started to increase since they were going to profit from the acquisition. The resultant effect was the acquisition of BA Connect in 2007. Environmental pressure groups could be described as having played a significant role in Flybe’s decision to acquire smaller and environmentally friendly aircraft, the 78 seater Q400 turboprop aircraft. Flybe abandoned its initial interest in either Boeing or Airbus aircraft. Stakeholder pressure could be argued as having played a part, and still plays a significant part today. Stakeholder pressure is therefore a significant factor in firm strategies. However, not everybody’s demands will be effected by management. Some decisions will be taken at the expense of others. A power-interest matrix is a useful tool in stakeholder pressure assessment. RECENT STRATEGIC CHANGES THAT FLYBE HAS TAKEN Fit or Stretch future strategies Flybe achieved in its strategies of rapid expansion and re-branding the corporation within a short period of time. Change of business model, acquisition of BA Connect and differentiation strategies have all been aimed at gaining a substantial market share through positioning. The author argues that with its accelerated rate of growth Flybe now requires to consolidate its position on the market by focussing on its internal resources. Working on its core competencies, Flybe can still realise growth. The author therefore suggests that Flybe’s future strategies should be stretch based. Indeed, in the battle of the low cost carriers, Flybe have decided that an ambitious strategy is the best way that they can prosper. The acquisition of  BA Connect accelerates this strategy. Flybe’s rapid growth will enable them to spread their costs over a far greater range of activity and routes than ever before. This should enable them to continue to be able to offer low cost fares (Bizl ed, 2008). Evidence in literature and research asserts that the development of competitive advantage could be through looking at a firm’s resources and capabilities (Foss and Kaudsen, 2003; Barney, 2001). Appendix 4 is a value chain system for Flybe. A close examination of the value chain has led the author to conclude that Flybe has huge resources at its disposal and capabilities that it can develop into core competencies. As such, its future strategy should be based on the inside-out approach. Looking at the inbound activities, Flybe made the right decision in terms of aircraft acquisition. Flybe’s 78 seat Bombardier Q400 Turboprop and the Embraer 195 (which will be fully operational in 2009) have been heralded as an environmentally friendly fleet, its capacity suits the market. Flybe’s competitors have gone for bigger aircraft instead, despite the threat of public protests and impending legislation (Done, 2007). Flybe could possibly have a competitive advantage from its assets. Effective operations supported by its links with Exeter University in terms of learning and development could improve and cut down on costs. For the period 2007-2008 financial year about  £10-15m has been set aside for marketing the Flybe product. In 2007 Flybe had cash reserves in excess of  £136.2m compared to the same period the previous year (Annual Report, 2007). This is strength and Flybe should focus on building route growth, developing its brand and increasing its fleet efficiency. Claiming a core-competency in Flybe business should concentrate on improving passenger load factor, reputation index and operational efficiency (Pegels and Yang, 2000). This is achievable considering Flybe’s resources. More importantly, Flybe is currently taking an exceptional change of nearly  £6.5m by writing down the asset value of its BAE 146 aircraft (Bized, 2008). This is an essential part of their strategy to operate more efficiently, and in a more environmentally friendly fashion. Flybe’s new fleet will be one of the youngest in the world (Bized, 2008). The acquisition of BA Connect saw Flybe’s staff increase to over 3000 in a relatively short period (Done, 2007). This author argues that with such a vital resource the process of integration should focus on building a vision and culture that promotes the corporate brand of Flybe (Hatch and Schult, 2003). Nonetheless, post-merger integration will be critical to the success of Flybe. Learning and development for increased productivity and enhanced corporate image should focus on employees. Flybe has recently unveiled details about its project to build a 160-bedroom hotel at Exeter International Airport (This is Exeter, 2008). The hotel would be operated by a third party, with Flybe guaranteeing to fill 80 rooms a night with all its employees and those from other industry sectors attending training courses. This would be part of resource management. In January 2008, Flybe also announced a landmark franchise Agreement signed with Loganair (The Scottish regional airline). This is Flybe’s innovative philosophy and strategy of continuing to build a market-leading position as Europe’s largest regional airline following the acquisition of BA Connect in 2006. The flights commenced operations in October 2008 (Reuters, 2008). Flybe should now focus on organic growth. Research evidence has associated organic growth with stretch strategies (Leavy, 2003). However, a two-pronged approach has been suggested as a potentially effective strategy. The need to concentrate on resources while positioning a firm is considered as a dynamic and vibrant approach in the unpredictable market of today (Leavy, 2003). Flybe would be no exception to adopt such a strategy for the future. Flybe’s response to development on the market will determine the strategy to focus on. Jim French has not ruled out taking a predatory stance to opportunities that arise on the market. The author recommends a strategy based on stretch while keeping an eye on the industry structure. Other Future Strategy Options Flybe could consider the possibilities of mergers, alliances and sustained acquisitions of other businesses. Acquisition is where strategies are developed by taking over ownership of another organisation (Johnson, et al  2006). Flybe recently penned a three year exclusive contract with car rental firm Avis that will see both companies explore the possibility of integrating car hire with flight bookings (Skyscanner, 2008). However, Flybe would also have to consider the pros and cons of mergers and acquisitions. Another strategy option that Flybe could possibly consider would be stock market floatation, when the current market conditions and the economic situation become favourable. Conclusion As seen above, external factors either create threats or opportunities for firms in the industry. Industry structure analysis is vital to identify key drivers in the industry. Flybe has successfully chosen its strategies to date. It remains to be seen if future strategies will be as effective but the author has suggested a stretch based strategy while keeping an eye on the market. References Barney, J.B. (2001) â€Å"Is the resource based ‘view’ a useful perspective for Strategic management research? Yes.† Academy of Management Review 21, 41-56 Bized (2008) http://www.bized.co.uk/current/leisure Done, K. (2003) Companies UK: Flybe negotiates to join the big league [online] Financial times. London: Available from: http://ft.com/ftArticle?queryText=flybe&page=&y=6&drillDown=%2Bgaco. [Accessed 17 November 2007] Done, K. (2005) Companies UK: Walker trusts set Flybe on course for sale or float [online] financial times. London. Available from: http://search.ft.com/ftArticle?queryText=flybe&page=2&y=6&drilldown=%2Bgaco. [Accessed 17 November 2007) Done, K. (2006) BA sells regional unit to Flybe [online] FT.com site. London. Available from: http://search.ft.com/ftArticle?queryText=flybe&page=11&y=b&drillDown=%2Bgaco [Accessed 17 November 2007] Done, K. (2007) Regional airline sale costs BA  £105m. [online] FT.com site. London. Available from: http://search.ft.com/ftArticle?queryText=flybe&page=1&y=6&drillDown=%2Bgaco [Accessed 17 November 2007] Done, K. (2007) Flybe flies into loss [online] FT.com site. London. Available from: http://search.ft.com/ftArticle?queryText=flybe=&y6&drillDown=%2Bgaco [Accessed 17 November 2007] Done, K. (2007) Ryanair orders 27 Boeing jets. FT.com site [online] Available from: http://search.ft.com/ftArticle?queryText=flybe=&y6&drillDown=%2Baco [Accessed26 November 2007] Flybe (2008) Flybe official website. http://www.flybe.com Foss, N.J. and Kaudsen, T. (2003) â€Å"The resource-based tangle towards a sustainable explanation of competitive advantage.† Managerial and Decision Economics 24, 291-207. George, B. (2003) Managing Stakeholder vs Responding to Stakeholders. Strategy and Leadership. 31(6), 36-40. Grant, R.M. (2005) Contemporary Strategy Analysis. 5th ed. Blackwell Publishing. Australia. Hatch, M.J and Schult, M (2003) Bringing the Corporation into corporate branding. European Journal of Marketing. 37 (7/8), 1041-1064. Johnson, G; Scholes, K; Whittington, R (2006) Exploring Corporate Strategy – Texts and Cases, 7th edition. Prentice Hall, London Leavy, B. (2003) Assessing your strategic alternatives from both a market position and core competence perspective. Strategy and Leadership. 31 (6), 29-35. Lynch, R (2003) Corporate Strategy. 3rd Edn. Prentice Hall, London. Parnell, J.A. (2006) Generic strategies after two decades: a re-conceptualisation of competitive strategy. Management Decision. 44 (8), 1139-1154. Pegels, C.C. and Yang, B. (2000) The impact of managerial characteristics on strategic assets, management capabilities. Team Performance management: An Introduction Journal , 6 (5/6), 97-106. Reuters (2008) Flybe – Another new horizon for Flybe: NON-REG. http://www.reuters.com/article Skyscanner (2008) Flybe goes from strength to strength. http://news.skyscanner.net/articles/2008/07/000482-flybe This is Exeter (2008) Flybe unveils plans for a 160-bedroom hotel at city airport. http://www.thisisexeter.co.uk/business/Flybe-unveils-plans-160-bedroom-hotel Tudway, R and A.M. (2006) Corporate Governance, Shareholder value and Societal expectation. Corporate Governance. 6 (3), 305-316. Transport Research Laboratory (2004) Airline Performance Indicators. Transport Research Laboratory, Wokingham. London.

American Literature Essay

Fenny Fern, pseudonym of Sara Willis Parton, was the first woman columnist, a popular novelist and author of children’s stories. She was the most highly paid newspaper writer of that period. She used to write on such topics, which a woman at that time would not dare to talk about in public. Fenny wrote on economic independence of women, prostitution, birth control, children’s rights etc. Fenny was deeply affected by the injustice women had to face both at home and workplace and hence she raised those issues in her newspaper columns. She even used to suggest the right ways and wrestled or equal right, equal pay for women too. ‘The working girls of New York’ is just one step towards what seemed to be her target. Here she dealt with the problems that working women faced at that time including the problems at workplace and also the inequality of wages. Rebecca Harding Davis was a journalist who raised social issues and is considered the pioneer of realistic fiction in American literature. She achieved fame from her novel, ‘Life in the Iron Mills’. Davis used to write for a change in social status of blacks, women, immigrants and the working class. She concentrated on the issues related to omen and portrayed the powerlessness of the working class in breaking the chains of industrial capitalism. According to Jean Pfaelzer, ‘Life in the Iron Mills’ must be considered a central text in the origins of American realism, American proletarian literature, and American feminism. Both Fenny and Davis fought for social injustice with the help of their writing skills. Their medium of war was print and instrument was pen with which they used to fight for the prevailing social injustice. They raised issues of the downtrodden and the working class that had to suffer various problems at that time.